Sumerian Mythology FAQ (Version 2.0html)

Sumerian Mythology FAQ (Version 2.0html)
by Christopher Siren, 1992, 1994, 2000
cbsiren at alum dot mit dot edu

This FAQ used to be posted on the third of every month to alt.mythology. An older text copy of this FAQ is available via anonymous ftp pending *.answers approval at:
rtfm.mit.edu at /pub/usenet/news.answers/mythology/sumer-faq
last changes: July 27, 2000: complete revision including incorporating Kramer's Sumerian Mythology and Black & Green's God's Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia. Added more citations of sources.
July 19, 1999: modified first sentance to include hints of civilization prior to and outside of Sumer
September 20, 1998: fleshed out the Gilgamesh entry
July 3, 1998: added a couple of Lilith links to Renee Rosen's and Alan Humm's sites.
August 13, 1997: added much more historical introductory material.
March 20, 1996: cleaned up some misleading references to Kur.
March 1, 1996: added the reference to Adapa's dictionary.
Feb 3, 1996: fixed a formatting problem in the sources area and added the full title "Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Underworld" to the Biblical ref's section.
Nov 13, 1995: fixed a couple of problems with some internal links.
Nov 2, 1995: added some short notes about the primary deities, Ninhursag, and the Dilmun/Eden parallel to clarify some issues.
October 6th, 1995: added a link to the "dictionary" and brief reviews of the sources and other relevant books.
September 1995: moved page to pubpages server
March 25th 1995: header of Usenet version reformatted for *.answers; changed URL to home address; small changes to Inanna & Dumuzi
Adapa (Dan Sullivan) has constructed a more complete Sumerian-English dictionary at:
http://home.earthlink.net/~duranki/index1.html#dict (Restored! 5/13/99)
John Halloran has a Sumerian Language Page at:
http://www.sumerian.org/
I have constructed a rudimentary Sumerian-English, English Sumerian glossary using Kramer's The Sumerians and Jacobsen's Treasures of Darkness, although parties interested in the Sumerian language may be better served at the prior two pages. note: This FAQ is partly based on an anthropology paper which I wrote in 1992, using some of the sources detailed below.

Contents:
I. History and Overview
II. What do we know about Sumerian Cosmology?
III. What Deities did they worship?
A. The Four Primary Dieties
B. The Seven who decreed fate
C. The Annuna and others
D. The Demigods, mortal Heroes and Monsters
IV. What about the Underworld?
V. What are me anyway?
VI. I've heard that there are a lot of Biblical parallels in Sumerian literature. What are they?
VII. Source material
VIII. Other books of interest.
I. History and Overview -

Sumer may very well be the first civilization in the world (although long term settlements at Jericho and Çatal Hüyük predate Sumer and examples of writing from Egypt and the Harappa, Indus valley sites maypredate those from Sumer). From its beginnings as a collection of farming villages around 5000 BCE, through its conquest by Sargon of Agade around 2370 BCE and its final collapse under the Amorites around 2000 BCE, the Sumerians developed a religion and a society which influenced both their neighbors and their conquerors. Sumerian cuneiform, the earliest written language, was borrowed by the Babylonians, who also took many of their religious beliefs. In fact, traces and parallels of Sumerian myth can be found in Genesis.
History
Sumer was a collection of city states around the Lower Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is now southern Iraq. Each of these cities had individual rulers, although as early as the mid-fourth millennium BCE the leader of the dominant city could have been considered the king of the region. The history of Sumer tends to be divided into five periods. They are the Uruk period, which saw the dominance of the city of that same name, the Jemdat Nasr period, the Early Dynastic periods, the Agade period, and the Ur III period - the entire span lasting from 3800 BCE to around 2000 BCE. In addition, there is evidence of the Sumerians in the area both prior to the Uruk period and after the Ur III Dynastic period, but relatively little is known about the former age and the latter time period is most heavily dominated by the Babylonians.
The Uruk period, stretched from 3800 BCE to 3200 BCE. It is to this era that the Sumerian King Lists ascribe the reigns of Dumuzi the shepherd, and the other antediluvian kings. After his reign Dumuzi was worshipped as the god of the spring grains. This time saw an enormous growth in urbanization such that Uruk probably had a population around 45,000 at the period's end. It was easily the largest city in the area, although the older cities of Eridu to the south and Kish to the north may have rivaled it. Irrigation improvements as well as a supply of raw materials for craftsmen provided an impetus for this growth. In fact, the city of An and Inanna also seems to have been at the heart of a trade network which stretched from what is now southern Turkey to what is now eastern Iran. In addition people were drawn to the city by the great temples there.
The Eanna of Uruk, a collection of temples dedicated to Inanna, was constructed at this time and bore many mosaics and frescoes. These buildings served civic as well as religious purposes, which was fitting as the en, or high priest, served as both the spiritual and temporal leader. The temples were places where craftsmen would practice their trades and where surplus food would be stored and distributed.
The Jemdat Nasr period lasted from 3200 BCE to 2900 BCE. It was not particularly remarkable and most adequately described as an extension and slowing down of the Uruk period. This is the period during which the great flood is supposed to have taken place. The Sumerians' account of the flood may have been based on a flooding of the Tigris, Euphrates, or both rivers onto their already marshy country.
The Early Dynastic period ran from 2900 BCE to 2370 BCE and it is this period for which we begin to have more reliable written accounts although some of the great kings of this era later evolved mythic tales about them and were deified. Kingship moved about 100 miles upriver and about 50 miles south of modern Bahgdad to the city of Kish. One of the earlier kings in Kish was Etana who "stabilized all the lands" securing the First Dynasty of Kish and establishing rule over Sumer and some of its neighbors. Etana was later believed by the Babylonians to have rode to heaven on the back of a giant Eagle so that he could receive the "plant of birth" from Ishtar (their version of Inanna) and thereby produce an heir.
Meanwhile, in the south, the Dynasty of Erech was founded by Meskiaggasher, who, along with his successors, was termed the "son of Utu", the sun-god. Following three other kings, including another Dumuzi, the famous Gilgamesh took the throne of Erech around 2600 BCE and became in volved in a power struggle for the region with the Kish Dynasts and with Mesannepadda, the founder of the Dynasty of Ur. While Gilgamesh became a demi-god, remembered in epic tales, it was Mesannepadda who was eventually victorious in this three-way power struggle, taking the by then traditional title of "King of Kish".
Although the dynasties of Kish and Erech fell by the wayside, Ur could not retain a strong hold over all of Sumer. The entire region was weakened by the struggle and individual city-states continued more or less independent rule. The rulers of Lagash declared themselves "Kings of Kish" around 2450 BCE, but failed to seriously control the region, facing several military challenges by the nearby Umma. Lugalzagesi, ensi or priest-king of Umma from around 2360-2335 BCE, razed Lagash, and conquered Sumer, declaring himself "king of Erech and the Land". Unfortunately for him, all of this strife made Sumer ripe for conquest by an outsider and Sargon of Agade seized that opportunity.
Sargon united both Sumer and the northern region of Akkad - from which Babylon would arise about four hundred years later - not very far from Kish. Evidence is sketchy, but he may have extended his realm from the Medeterranian Sea to the Indus River. This unity would survive its founder by less than 40 years. He built the city of Agade and established an enormous court there and he had a new temple erected in Nippur. Trade from across his new empire and beyond swelled the city, making it the center of world culture for a brief time.
After Sargon's death, however, the empire was fraught with rebellion. Naram-Sin, Sargon's grandson and third successor, quelled the rebellions through a series of military successes, extending his realm. He declared himself 'King of the Four corners of the World' and had himself deified. His divine powers must have failed him as the Guti, a mountain people, razed Agade and deposed Naram-Sin, ending that dynasty.
After a few decades, the Guti presence became intolerable for the Sumerian leaders. Utuhegal of Uruk/Erech rallied a coalition army and ousted them. One of his lieutenants, Ur-Nammu, usurped his rule and established the third Ur dynasty around 2112 BCE. He consolidated his control by defeating a rival dynast in Lagash and soon gained control of all of the Sumerian city-states. He established the earliest known recorded law-codes and had constructed the great ziggurat of Ur, a kind of step-pyramid which stood over 60' tall and more than 200' wide. For the next century the Sumerians were extremely prosperous, but their society collapsed around 2000 BCE under the invading Amorites. A couple of city-states maintained their independence for a short while, but soon they and the rest of the Sumerians were absorbed into the rising empire of the Babylonians. (Crawford pp. 1-28; Kramer 1963 pp. 40-72)
Culture
Seated along the Euphrates River, Sumer had a thriving agriculture and trade industry. Herds of sheep and goats and farms of grains and vegetables were held both by the temples and private citizens. Ships plied up and down the river and throughout the Persian gulf, carrying pottery and various processed goods and bringing back fruits and various raw materials from across the region, including cedars from the Levant.
Sumer was one of the first literate civilizations leaving many records of business transactions, and lessons from schools. They had strong armies, which with their chariots and phalanxes held sway over their less civilized neighbors (Kramer 1963, p. 74). Perhaps the most lasting cultural remnants of the Sumerians though, can be found in their religion.
Religion
The religion of the ancient Sumerians has left its mark on the entire middle east. Not only are its temples and ziggurats scattered about the region, but the literature, cosmogony and rituals influenced their neighbors to such an extent that we can see echoes of Sumer in the Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition today. From these ancient temples, and to a greater extent, through cuneiform writings of hymns, myths, lamentations, and incantations, archaeologists and mythographers afford the modern reader a glimpse into the religious world of the Sumerians.
Each city housed a temple that was the seat of a major god in the Sumerian pantheon, as the gods controlled the powerful forces which often dictated a human's fate. The city leaders had a duty to please the town's patron deity, not only for the good will of that god or goddess, but also for the good will of the other deities in the council of gods. The priesthood initially held this role, and even after secular kings ascended to power, the clergy still held great authority through the interpretation of omens and dreams. Many of the secular kings claimed divine right; Sargon of Agade, for example claimed to have been chosen by Ishtar/Inanna. (Crawford 1991: 21-24)
The rectangular central shrine of the temple, known as a 'cella,' had a brick altar or offering table in front of a statue of the temple's deity. The cella was lined on its long ends by many rooms for priests and priestesses. These mud-brick buildings were decorated with cone geometrical mosaics, and the occasional fresco with human and animal figures. These temple complexes eventually evolved into towering ziggurats. (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983: 119)
The temple was staffed by priests, priestesses, musicians, singers, castrates and hierodules. Various public rituals, food sacrifices, and libations took place there on a daily basis. There were monthly feasts and annual, New Year celebrations. During the later, the king would be married to Inanna as the resurrected fertility god Dumuzi, whose exploits are dealt with below.
When it came to more private matters, a Sumerian remained devout. Although the gods preferred justice and mercy, they had also created evil and misfortune. A Sumerian had little that he could do about it. Judging from Lamentation records, the best one could do in times of duress would be to "plead, lament and wail, tearfully confessing his sins and failings." Their family god or city god might intervene on their behalf, but that would not necessarily happen. After all, man was created as a broken, labor saving, tool for the use of the gods and at the end of everyone's life, lay the underworld, a generally dreary place. (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983: pp.123-124)
II. What do we know about Sumerian Cosmology?
From verses scattered throughout hymns and myths, one can compile a picture of the universe's (anki) creation according to the Sumerians. The primeval sea (abzu) existed before anything else and within that, the heaven (an) and the earth (ki) were formed. The boundary between heaven and earth was a solid (perhaps tin) vault, and the earth was a flat disk. Within the vault lay the gas-like 'lil', or atmosphere, the brighter portions therein formed the stars, planets, sun, and moon. (Kramer, The Sumerians 1963: pp. 112-113) Each of the four major Sumerian deities is associated with one of these regions. An, god of heaven, may have been the main god of the pantheon prior to 2500 BC., although his importance gradually waned. (Kramer 1963 p. 118) Ki is likely to be the original name of the earth goddess, whose name more often appears as Ninhursag (queen of the mountains), Ninmah (the exalted lady), or Nintu (the lady who gave birth). It seems likely that these two were the progenitors of most of the gods.
According to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld", in the first days all needed things were created. Heaven and earth were separated. An took Heaven, Enlil took the earth, Ereshkigal was carried off to the netherworld as a prize, and Enki sailed off after her.
III. What Deities did they worship?
Nammu
Nammu is the Goddess of the watery abyss, the primeval sea. She may be the earliest of deities within Sumerian cosmology as she gave birth to heaven and earth. (Kramer 1961 p. 39) She is elsewhere described both as the mother of all the gods and as the wife of An. (Kramer 1961 p. 114) She is Enki's mother. She prompts him to create servants for the gods and is then directed by him on how, with the help of Nimmah/Ninhursag to create man. (Kramer 1963 p. 150; Kramer 1961 p. 70)
A. The Primary Deities
It is notable that the Sumerians themselves may not have grouped these four as a set and that the grouping has been made because of the observations of Sumerologists.
An
An, god of heaven, may have been the main god of the pantheon prior to 2500 BC., although his importance gradually waned. (Kramer 1963 p. 118) In the early days he carried off heaven, while Enlilcarried away the earth. (Kramer 1961 p. 37-39) It seems likely that he and Ki/Ninhursag were the progenitors of most of the gods. although in one place Nammu is listed as his wife. (Kramer 1961 p. 114) Among his children and followers were the Anunnaki. (Kramer 1961 p. 53) His primary temple was in Erech. He and Enlil give various gods, goddesses, and kings their earthly regions of influence and their laws. (Kramer 1963 p. 124) Enki seats him at the first seat of the table in Nippur at the feast celebrating his new house in Eridu. (Kramer 1961 p. 63) He hears Inanna's complaint about Mount Ebih (Kur?), but discourages her from attacking it because of its fearsome power. (Kramer 1961 pp. 82-83) After the flood, he and Enlil make Ziusudra immortal and make him live in Dilmun. (Kramer 1961 p. 98) (See also Anu.)

Ninhursag (Ki, Ninmah, Nintu)
Ki is likely to be the original name of the earth goddess, whose name more often appears as Ninhursag (queen of the mountains), Ninmah (the exalted lady), or Nintu (the lady who gave birth). (Kramer 1963 p. 122) Most often she is considered Enlil's sister, but in some traditions she is his spouse instead. (Jacobsen p.105) She was born, possibly as a unified cosmic mountain with An, from Nammuand shortly thereafter, their union produced Enlil. (Kramer 1961 p. 74) In the early days, as Ki, she was separated from heaven (An) and carried off by Enlil. (Kramer 1961 pp. 37-41) It seems likely that she and An were the progenitors of most of the gods. She later unites with Enlil and with the assistance of Enki they produce the world's plant and animal life. (Kramer 1961 p. 75)

"Enki and Ninhursag"
In Dilmun, she (as Nintu) bears the goddess Ninsar from Enki, who in turn bears the goddess Ninkur, who in turn bears Uttu, goddess of plants. Uttu bore eight new trees from Enki. When he then ate Uttu's children, Ninhursag cursed him with eight wounds and dissapears. After being persuaded by Enlil to undo her curse, she bore Enki eight new children which undid the wounds of the first ones. (Kramer 1963 pp. 147-149; Kramer 1961 pp. 54-59)
Enki seats her (as Nintu) on the big side of the table in Nippur at the feast celebrating his new house in Eridu. (Kramer 1961 p. 63)
"Enki and Ninmah"
She is the mother goddess and, as Ninmah, assists in the creation of man. Enki, having been propted by Nammu to create servants for the gods, describes how Nammu and Ninmah will help fashion man from clay. Prior to getting to work, she and Enki drink overmuch at a feast. She then shapes six flawed versions of man from the heart of the clay over the Abzu, with Enki declaring their fates. Enki, in turn also creates a flawed man which is unable to eat. Ninmah appears to curse him for the failed effort. (Kramer 1963 pp. 149-151; Kramer 1961 pp. 69-72)
(See also Aruru)
Enlil
An and Ki's union produced Enlil (Lord of 'lil'). Enlil was the air-god and leader of the pantheon from at least 2500 BC, when his temple Ekur in Nippur was the spiritual center of Sumer (Kramer 1961 p. 47). In the early days he separated and carried off the earth (Ki) while An carried off heaven. (Kramer 1961 p. 37-41) He assumed most of An's powers. He is glorified as "'the father of the gods, 'the king of heaven and earth,' ' the king of all the lands'". Kramer portrays him as a patriarchal figure, who is both creator and disciplinarian. Enlil causes the dawn, the growth of plants, and bounty (Kramer 1961 p. 42). He also invents agricultural tools such as the plow or pickaxe (Kramer 1961 pp 47-49). Without his blessings, a city would not rise (Kramer 1961 pp. 63, 80) Most often he is considered Ninlil's husband, with Ninhursag as his sister, but some traditions have Ninhursag as his spouse. (Jacobsen p.105) "Enlil and Ninlil"
He is also banished to the nether world (kur) for his rape of Ninlil, his intended bride, but returns with the first product of their union, the moon god Sin (also known as Nanna). (Kramer, Sumerians 1963: pp.145-147). Ninlil follows him into exile as his wife. He tells the various underworld guardians to not reveal his whereabouts and instead poses as those guardians himself three times, each time impregnating her again it appears that at least on one occasion Enlil reveals his true self before they unite. The products of these unions are three underworld deities, including Meslamtaea (aka. Nergal) and Ninazu. Later, when Nanna visits him in Nippur, he bestows Ur to him with a palace and plentiful plantlife. (Kramer 1961 p. 43-49) Enlil is also seen as the father of Ninurta (Kramer 1961 p. 80).
"Enki and Eridu"
When Enki journeys to Enlil's city Nippur in order for his own city, Eridu to be blessed. He is given bread at Enki's feast and is seated next to An, after which Enlil proclaims that the Anunnaki should praise Enki. (Kramer 1961 pp. 62-63)
"The Dispute between Cattle and Grain"
Enlil and Enki, at Enki's urging, create farms and fields for the grain goddess Ashnan and the cattle goddess Lahar. This area has places for Lahar to take care of the animals and Ashnan to grow the crops. The two agricultural deities get drunk and begin fighting, so it falls to Enlil and Enki to resolve their conflict - how they do so has not been recovered. (Kramer 1961 pp. 53-54; Kramer 1963 pp. 220-223)
"The Dispute between Emesh and Enten"
Enlil creates the herdsman deity Enten and the agricultural deity Emesh. He settles a dispute between Emesh and Enten over who should be recognized as 'farmer of the gods', declaring Enten's claim to be stronger. (Kramer 1961 p. 49-51).
"Enki and Ninhursag"
He helps Enki again when he was cursed by Ninhursag. Enlil and a fox entreat her to return and undo her curse. (Kramer 1961 p. 57)
"Enki and the World Order"
The me were assembled by Enlil in his temple Ekur, and given to Enki to guard and impart to the world, beginning with Eridu, Enki's center of worship. (Kramer 1963 pp. 171-183)
"Inanna's Descent to the Nether World"
Enlil refuses Ninshubur's appeal on behalf of his [grand-]daughter, Inanna to help rescue her from Ereshkigal in the underworld. (Kramer 1961 pp. 86, 87, 89, 93)
"Ziusudra"
After the flood, he and An gave Ziusudra eternal life and had him live in Dilmun. (Kramer 1961 p. 98)
"Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Netherworld"
When Gilgamesh looses his pukku and mikku in the nether world, and Enkidu is held fast there by demons, he appeals to Enlil for help. Enlil refuses to assist him. (Kramer 1961 p. 35-36)
(See also the Babylonian Ellil)
Enki
Enki is the son of Nammu, the primeval sea. Contrary to the translation of his name, Enki is not the lord of the earth, but of the abzu (the watery abyss and also semen) and of wisdom. This contradiction leads Kramer and Maier to postulate that he was once known as En-kur, lord of the underworld, which either contained or was contained in the Abzu. He did struggle with Kur as mentioned in the prelude to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Underworld", and presumably was victorious and thereby able to claim the title "Lord of Kur" (the realm). He is a god of water, creation, and fertility. He also holds dominion over the land. He is the keeper of the me, the divine laws. (Kramer & Maier Myths of Enki 1989: pp. 2-3) "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Underworld"
Enki sails for the Kur, presumably to rescue Ereshkigal after she was given over to Kur. He is assailed by creatures with stones. These creatures may have been an extension of Kur itself. (Wolkstein and Kramer p. 4; Kramer 1961 p. 37-38, 78-79)
"Enki and Eridu" Enki raises his city Eridu from the sea, making it very lush. He takes his boat to Nippur to have the city blessed by Enlil. He throws a feast for the gods, giving Enlil, An, and Nintu spacial attention. After the feast, Enlil proclaims that the Anunnaki should praise Enki. (Kramer 1961; pp. 62-63)
"Enki and the World Order"
The me were assembled by Enlil in Ekur and given to Enki to guard and impart to the world, beginning with Eridu, his center of worship. From there, he guards the me and imparts them on the people. He directs the me towards Ur and Meluhha and Dilmun, organizing the world with his decrees. (Kramer 1963 pp. 171-183)
"The Dispute between Cattle and Grain"
Enlil and Enki, at Enki's urging, create farms and fields for the grain goddess Ashnan and the cattle goddess Lahar. This area has places for Lahar to take care of the animals and Ashnan to grow the crops. The two agricultural deities get drunk and begin fighting, so it falls to Enlil and Enki to resolve their conflict - how they do so has not been recovered. (Kramer 1961 pp. 53-54; Kramer 1963 pp. 220-223)
"Enki and Ninhursag"
He blessed the paradisical land of Dilmun, to have plentiful water and palm trees. He sires the goddess Ninsar upon Ninhursag, then sires Ninkur upon Ninsar, finally siring Uttu, goddess of plants, upon Ninkur. Uttu bore eight new types of trees from Enki. He then consumed these tree-children and was cursed by Ninhursag, with one wound for each plant consumed. Enlil and a fox act on Enki's behalf to call back Ninhursag in order to undo the damage. She joins with Enki again and bears eight new children, one to cure each of the wounds. (Kramer 1963 pp. 147-149; Kramer 1961 pp. 54-59)
"Enki and Ninmah: The Creation of Man"
The gods complain that they need assistance. At his mother Nammu's prompting, he directs her, along with some constructive criticism from Ninmah (Ninhursag), in the creation of man from the heart of the clay over the Abzu. Several flawed versions were created before the final version was made. (Kramer 1963 pp. 149-151; Kramer 1961 pp. 69-72)
"Inanna's Descent to the Nether World"
He is friendly to Inanna and rescued her from Kur by sending two sexless beings to negotiate with, and flatter Ereshkigal. They gave her the Food of Life and the Water of Life, which restored her. (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 62-64)
"Inanna and Enki"
Later, Inanna comes to Enki and complains at having been given too little power from his decrees. In a different text, she gets Enki drunk and he grants her more powers, arts, crafts, and attributes - a total of ninety-four me. Inanna parts company with Enki to deliver the me to her cult center at Erech. Enki recovers his wits and tries to recover the me from her, but she arrives safely in Erech with them. (Kramer & Maier 1989: pp. 38-68)
(See also Ea)
III B. The Seven Who Decreed Fate
In addition to the four primary deities, there were hundreds of others. A group of seven "decreed the fates" - these probably included the first four, as well as Nanna, his son Utu, the sun god and a god of justice, and Nanna's daughter Inanna, goddess of love and war.
Nanna (Sin, (Suen), Ashgirbabbar)
Nanna is another name for the moon god Sin. He is the product of Enlil's rape of Ninlil. (Kramer, 1963, pp. 146-7.) He travels across the sky in his gufa, (a small, canoe-like boat made of woven twigs and tar), with the stars and planets about him. (Kramer 1961 p. 41) Nanna was the tutelary deity of Ur (Kramer 1963 p. 66), appointed as king of that city by An and Enlil. (Kramer 1963 pp. 83-84) He journeyed to Nippur by boat, stopping at five cities along the way. When he arrived at Nippur, he proffered gifts to Enlil and pleaded with him to ensure that his city of Ur would be blessed, prosperous, and thus, not be flooded. (Kramer 1963 pp. 145-146, Kramer 1961 pp. 47-49) Nanna was married to Ningal and they produced Inanna and Utu. (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 30-34; Kramer 1961 p. 41) He rests in the Underworld every month, and there decrees the fate of the dead. (Kramer 1963 p. 132, 135, 210) He refuses to send aid to Inanna when she is trapped in the underworld. (Kramer 1963 pp. 153-154) He established Ur-Nammu as his mortal representative, establishing the third Ur dynasty. (Kramer 1963 p. 84)
Utu
Utu is the son of Nanna and Ningal and the god of the Sun and of Justice. He goes to the underworld at the end of every day setting in the "mountain of the west" and rising in the "mountain of the east". While there decrees the fate of the dead, although he also may lie down to sleep at night. (Kramer 1963 p. 132, 135; Kramer 1961 pp. 41-42) He is usually depicted with fiery rays coming out of his shoulders and upper arms, and carrying a saw knife. (Kramer 1961 p. 40) When Inanna's huluppu tree is infested with unwelcome guests, he ignores her appeal for aid. (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 6-7) He tries to set her up with Dumuzi, the shepherd, but she initially rebuffs him, preferring the farmer. (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 30-33) He aided Dumuzi in his flight from the galla demons by helping him to transform into different creatures. (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 72-73, 81) Through Enki's orders, he also brings water up from the earth in order to irrigate Dilmun, the garden paradise, the place where the sun rises. (Kramer 1963 p. 148) He is in charge of the "Land of the Living" and, in sympathy for Gilgamesh, calls off the seven weather heroes who defend that land. (Kramer 1963 pp. 190-193) He opened the "ablal" of the Underworld for the shade of Enkidu, to allow him to escape, at the behest of Enki. (Kramer 1963 p. 133; Kramer 1961 p. 36)
(See also Shamash)
Inanna
Nanna and Ningal's daughter Inanna, goddess of love and war. "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Underworld"
A woman planted the huluppu tree in Inanna's garden, but the Imdugud-bird (Anzu bird?) made a nest for its young there, Lilith (or her predecessor, a lilitu-demon) made a house in its trunk, and a serpent made a home in its roots. Inanna appeals to Utu about her unwelcome guests, but he is unsympathetic. She appeals to Gilgamesh, here her brother, and he is receptive. He tears down the tree and makes it into a throne and bed for her. In return for the favor, Inanna manufactures a pukku and mikku for him. (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 5-9)
"Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven"
Later, Inanna seeks out Gilgamesh as her lover. When he spurns her she sends the Bull of Heaven to terrorize his city of Erech. (Kramer 1963 p. 262)
"The Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi"
Her older brother Utu tries to set her up with Dumuzi, the shepherd, but she initially rebuffs him, preferring the farmer. He assures her that his parents are as good as hers and she begins to desire him. Her mother, Ningal, further assures her. The two consummate their relationship and with their exercise in fertility, the plants and grains grow as well. After they spend time in the marriage bed, Inanna declares herself as his battle leader and sets his duties as including sitting on the throne and guiding the path of weapons. At Ninshubur's request, she gives him power over the fertility of plants and animals. (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 30-50)
"Inanna's Descent to the Nether World"
Inanna also visits Kur, which results in a myth reminiscent of the Greek seasonal story of Persephone. She sets out to witness the funeral rites of her sister-in-law Ereshkigal's husband Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven. She takes precaution before setting out, by telling her servant Ninshubur to seek assistance from Enlil, Nanna, or Enki at their shrines, should she not return. Inanna knocks on the outer gates of Kur and the gatekeeper, Neti, questions her. He consults with queen Ereshkigal and then allows Inanna to pass through the seven gates of the underworld. After each gate, she is required to remove adornments and articles of clothing, until after the seventh gate, she is naked. The Annuna pass judgment against her and Ereshkigal killed her and hung her on the wall. (see Ereshkigal) (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983 pp. 52-60)
Inanna is rescued by the intervention of Enki. He creates two sexless creatures that empathize with Ereshkigal's suffering, and thereby gain a gift - Inanna's corpse. They restore her to life with the Bread of Life and the Water of Life, but the Sumerian underworld has a conservation of death law. No one can leave without providing someone to stay in their stead. Inanna is escorted by galla/demons past Ninshubur and members of her family. She doesn't allow them to claim anyone until she sees Dumuzi on his throne in Uruk. They then seize Dumuzi, but he escapes them twice by transforming himself, with the aid of Utu. Eventually he is caught and slain. Inanna spies his sister, Geshtinanna, in mourning and they go to Dumuzi. She allows Dumuzi, the shepherd, to stay in the underworld only six months of the year, while Geshtinanna will stay the other six. (Wolkstein & Kramer pp. 60-89) As with the Greek story of the kidnapping of Persephone, this linked the changing seasons, the emergence of the plants from the ground, with the return of a harvest deity from the nether world. Geshtinanna is also associated with growth, but where her brother rules over the spring harvested grain, she rules over the autumn harvested vines (Wolkstein & Kramer p. 168).
"Inanna and Mount Ebih"
Inanna complains to An about Mount Ebih (Kur?) demanding that it glorify her and submit lest she attack it. An discourages her from doing so because of its fearsome power. She does so anyway, bringing a storehouse worth of weapons to bear on it. She destroys it. Because she is known as the Destroyer of Kur in certain hymns, Kramer identifys Mt. Ebih with Kur. (Kramer 1961 pp. 82-83)
"Inanna and Enki"
The me were universal decrees of divine authority -the invocations that spread arts, crafts, and civilization. Enki became the keeper of the me. Inanna comes to Enki and complains at having been given too little power from his decrees. In a different text, she gets Enki drunk and he grants her more powers, arts, crafts, and attributes - a total of ninety-four me. Inanna parts company with Enki to deliver the me to her cult center at Erech. Enki recovers his wits and tries to recover the me from her, but she arrives safely in Erech with them. (Kramer & Maier 1989: pp. 38-68)
(See also Ishtar)
III. C. The Annuna (Anunnaki) and others
At the next level were fifty "great gods", possibly the same as the Annuna, although several gods confined to the underworld are specifically designated Annuna, An's children. The Annuna are also said to live in Dulkug or Du-ku, the "holy mound".(Kramer 1963: pp. 122-123, Black and Green p. 72, Kramer 1961, p. 73). In the "Descent of Inanna to the Nether World" the Anunnaki are identified as the seven judges of the nether world. (Kramer 1963 p. 154; Kramer 1961 p. 119)
Ereshkigal
Ereshkigal is the queen of the underworld, who is either given to Kur in the underworld or given dominion over the underworld in the prelude to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Underworld". (Wolkstein and Kramer p. 157-158; Kramer 1961 p. 37-38) She has a palace there with seven gates and is due a visit by those entering Kur. (Kramer 1963 pp. 131, 134) She was married to Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven, and is Inanna's older sister. When Inanna trespassed on her domain, Ereshkigal first directs her gatekeeper to open the seven gates a crack and remove her garments. (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 55-57) Then when Inanna arrives she:
...fastened on Inanna the eye of death.
She spoke against her the word of wrath.
She uttered against her the cry of guilt
She struck her.
Inanna was turned into a corpse,
...And was hung from a hook on the wall.( Wolkstein & Kramer 1983 p. 60)
Later, when Enki's messengers arrive, she is moaning in pain. When they empathize with her, she grants them a boon. They request Inanna's corpse and she accedes. (Wolkstein & Kramer pp. 64-67) (See also Babylonian Ereshkigal)
Nergal (Meslamtaea) -
Nergal is the second son of Enlil and Ninlil. (Kramer 1961 pp. 44-45) He is perhaps the co-ruler of Kur with Ereshkigal where he has a palace and is due reverence by those who visit. He holds Enkidufast in the underworld after Enkidu broke several taboos while trying to recover Gilgamesh's pukku and mikku. He is more prominent in Babylonian literature and makes a brief appearance in II Kings 17:30.
(See Babylonian Nergal)
Ninlil
Ninlil was the intended bride of Enlil and the daughter of Nunbarshegunu, the old woman of Nippur. Enlil raped her and was then banished to the nether world (kur). She follows him to the nether world, where she gives birth to the moon god Sin (also known as Nanna). They have three more children in the nether world including Meslamtaea/(Nergal) and Ninazu who remain there so that Sin may be allowed to leave. (Kramer, Sumerians 1963: pp.146-7; Kramer 1961 pp. 43-46). In some texts she is Enlil's sister while Ninhursag is his bride. (Jacobsen p.105) Her chief shrine was in the Tummal district of Nippur. (See also Babylonian Ninlil)
Ningal
She is Nanna's wife and the mother of Inanna and Utu. She begs and weeps before Enlil for them not to flood her city, Ur.
(see also Babylonian Ningal and Nikkal of the Canaanites.)
Nanshe
Nanshe is a goddess of the city of Lagash who takes care of orphans and widows. She also seeks out justice for the poor and casts judgement on New Year's Day. She is supported by Nidaba and her husband, Haia. (Kramer 1963 pp. 124-125)
Nidaba
The goddess of writing and the patron deity of the edubba (palace archives). She is an assistant to Nanshe. (Kramer 1963 pp. 124-125)
Ninisinna (Nininsinna)
The patron goddess of the city Isin. She is the "hierodule of An"
Ninkasi ("The Lady who fills the mouth")
She is the goddess of brewing or alcohol, born of "sparkling-fresh water". (Kramer 1963 pp. 111, 206) She is one of the eight healing children born by Ninhursag for Enki She is born in response to Enki's mouth pain and Ninhursag declares that she should be the goddess who "sates the heart" (Kramer 1961 p. 58) or "who satisfies desire". (Kramer and Maier p. 30)
Ninurta
Ninurta is Enlil's son and a warrior deity, the god of the south wind. (Kramer 1963 p. 145; Kramer 1961 p. 80) In "The Feats and Exploits of Ninurta", that deity sets out to destroy the Kur. Kur initially intimidates Ninurta into retreating, but when Ninurta returns with greater resolve, Kur is destroyed. This looses the waters of the Abzu, causing the fields to be flooded with unclean waters. Ninurta dams up the Abzu by piling stones over Kur's corpse. He then drains these waters into the Tigris. (Kramer 1961 pp. 80-82). The identification of Ninurta's antagonist in this passage as Kur appears to be miscast. Black and Green identify his foe as the demon Asag, who was the spawn of An and Ki, and who produced monstrous offspring with Kur. The remainder of the details of this story are the same as in Kramer's account, but with Asag replacing Kur. In other versions, Ninurta is replaced by Adad/Ishkur. (Black & Green pp. 35-36)
(See also the Babylonian Ninurta)
Ashnan
The kindly maid. Ashnan is a grain goddess, initially living in Dulkug (Du-ku). (Kramer 1961 p. 50) Enlil and Enki, at Enki's urging, create farms and fields for her and for the cattle god Lahar. This area has places for Lahar to take care of the animals and Ashnan to grow the crops. The two agricultural deities get drunk and begin fighting, so it falls to Enlil and Enki to resolve their conflict - how they do so has not been recovered. (Kramer 1961 pp. 53-54)
Lahar
Lahar is the cattle-goddess, initially living in Duku (Dulkug). Enlil and Enki, at Enki's urging, create farms and fields for him and the grain goddess Ashnan. This area has places for Lahar to take care of the animals and Ashnan to grow the crops. The two agricultural deities get drunk and begin fighting, so it falls to Enlil and Enki to resolve their conflict - how they do so has not been recovered. (Kramer 1961 pp. 53-54; Kramer 1963 pp. 220-223)
Emesh
Created by Enlil this god is responsible for agriculture. He quarrels with his brother Enten, and makes a claim to be the 'farmer of the gods', bringing his claim to Enlil after Enten. When Enlil judges Enten's claim to be stronger, Emesh relents, brings him gifts, and reconciles. (Kramer 1961 pp. 49-51)
Enten
He is a farmer god, and is Enlil's field worker and herdsman. He quarrels with his brother Emesh and makes an appeal to Enlil that he deserves to be 'farmer of the gods'. Enlil judges Enten's claim to be the stronger and the two reconcile with Emesh bringing Enten gifts. (Kramer 1961 pp. 42, 49-51)
Uttu
She is the goddess of weaving and clothing (Kramer 1963 p. 174; Black and Green p. 182) and was previously thought to be the goddess of plants. She is both the child of Enki and Ninkur, and she bears eight new child/trees from Enki. When he then ate Uttu's children, Ninhursag cursed him with eight wounds and disappears. (Kramer 1961 pp. 57-59)
Enbilulu
The "knower" of rivers. He is the god appointed in charge of the Tigris and Euphrates by Enki. (Kramer 1961 p. 61)
Ishkur
God appointed to be in charge of the winds by Enki. He is in charge of "the silver lock of the 'heart' of heaven". (Kramer 1961 p. 61) He is identified with the Akkadian god, Adad. (Black and Green pp. 35-36)
Enkimdu
God placed in charge of canals and ditches by Enki. (Kramer 1961 p. 61)
Kabta
God placed in charge of the pickax and brickmold by Enki. (Kramer 1961 p. 61)
Mushdamma
God placed in charge of foundations and houses by Enki. (Kramer 1961 p. 61)
Sumugan
The god of the plain or "king of the mountain", he is the god placed in charge of the plant and animal life on the plain of Sumer by Enki. (Kramer 1961 pp. 61-62; Kramer 1963 p. 220)
III. D. Demigods, mortal Heroes, and Monsters
Dumuzi (demigod) (Tammuz)
A shepherd, he is the son of Enki and Sirtur. (Wolkstein & Kramer p. 34) He is given charge of stables and sheepfolds, filled with milk and fat by Enki. (Kramer 1961 p. 62) He has a palace in Kur, and is due a visit by those entering Kur. He is Inanna's husband. In life, he was the shepherd king of Uruk.
"The Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi"
Utu tries to set Inanna up with him but she initially rebuffs him, preferring the farmer. He assures her that his parents are as good as hers and she begins to desire him. The two consummate their relationship and with their exercise in fertility, the plants and grains grow as well. After they spend time in the marriage bed, Inanna declares herself as his battle leader and sets his duties as including sitting on the throne and guiding the path of weapons. At Ninshubur's request, she gives him power over the fertility of plants and animals. (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 30-50)
"Descent of Inanna to the Nether World"
Upon her rescue from the dead, he was pursued by galla demons, which he eluded for a time with the aid of Utu. Eventually he was caught and slain; however, he was partially freed from his stay in the underworld by the actions of his sister Geshtinanna. Now he resides there only half of the year, while she lives there the other half year; this represents seasonal change (see Inanna and Geshtinanna). (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 71-89)
(See also the Babylonian Tammuz.)
Geshtinanna (demigoddess)
She is Dumuzi's sister. After his death, she visited him in the underworld with Inanna, and was allowed to take his place there for six months out of the year. Her time in the underworld and her periodic emergence from it are linked with her new divine authority over the autumn vines and wine. (see also Inanna, Dumuzi)
Ziusudra (Ziusura)
In the Sumerian version of the flood story, the pious Ziusudra of Shuruppak (Kramer 1963 p. 26), the son of Ubartutu (or of Shuruppak?) (Kramer 1963 p. 224) is informed of the gods decision to destroy mankind by listening to a wall. He weathers the deluge and wind-storms aboard a huge boat. The only surviving detail of the boat is that it had a window. The flood lasts for seven days beforeUtu appears dispersing the flood waters. After that, Ziusudra makes appropriate sacrifices and protrations to Utu, An and Enlil. He is given eternal life in Dilmun by An and Enlil. (Kramer 1963 pp. 163-164; Kramer 1961 pp. 97-98)
Jacobsen reports a more complete version of "The Eridu Genesis" than Kramer or Black and Green which is close to the Babylonian story of Atrahasis. In this account, man had been directed to live in cities by Nintur but as they thrived, the noise irritated Enlil, who thus started the flood. In this account, Enki warns Ziusudra, instructing him to build the boat for his family and for representatives of the animals. The remainder is consistent with the accounts of Kramer and Black and Green. (Jacobsen p. 114)
Gilgamesh (demigod)
The son, either of a nomad or of the hero-king Lugalbanda and of the goddess Ninsun, Gilgamesh, may have been a historical King of Erech, during the time of the first Ur dynasty. His kingship is mentioned in various places, including the Sumerian King list and he was also an en, a spiritual head of a temple. He was also the lord of Kulab and by one account, the brother of Inanna. He was "the prince beloved of An", (Kramer p. 260, 188) and "who performs heroic deeds for Inanna" (Kramer 1963 p. 187)
"Gilgamesh and Agga" - (Pritchard pp.44-47; Kramer 1963 pp. 187-190)
King Agga of Kish sent an ultimatum to Erech. Gilgamesh tried to convince the elders that Erech should sack Kish in response, but the elders wanted to submit. He responded by taking the matter to the men of the city, who agreed to take up arms. Agga laid seige to Erech and Gilgamesh resisted with the help of his servant, Enkidu. He sent a soldier through the gate to Agga. The soldier is captured and tortured with a brief respite while another of Gilgamesh's soldiers climbs over the wall. Gilgamesh himself then climbs the wall and Agga's forces are so taken aback by the sight of them that Agga capitulates. Gilgamesh graciously accepts Agga's surrender, prasing him for returning his city.
After this episode, he apparently took Nippur from the son of the founder of the Ur I dynasty.
"Gilgamesh and the Land of the Living" (Pritchard pp. 47-50, Kramer 1963 pp. 190-197)
Gilgamesh, saddened by the dying he sees in his city, decides to go to the "Land of the Living" says so to Enkidu. At Enkidu's urging, Gilgamesh makes a sacrifice and first speaks to Utu, who is in charge of that land. After he informs Utu of his motives, the god calls off his seven guardian weather heroes. Gilgamesh recruits fifty single men to accompany them and commissions swords and axes. They travel over seven mountains, felling trees along the way eventually finding the "cedar of his heart". After some broken text Gilgamesh is in a deep sleep, presumably after an encounter withHuwawa. Enkidu or one of the others wakes him. They come upon Huwawa and Gilgamesh distracts him with flatery, then puts a nose ring on him and binds his arms. Huwawa grovels to Gilgamesh and Enkidu and Gilgamesh almost releases him. Enkidu argues against it and when Huwawa protests, he decapitates Huwawa. Gilgamesh is angered by Enkidu's rash action.
"Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Netherworld" (Kramer 1963 p.197-205)
Inanna appeals to Gilgamesh, here her brother, when her huluppu tree has been occupied and he is receptive. He tears down the tree and makes it into a throne and bed for her. In return for the favor, Inanna manufactures a pukku and mikku for him.
He leaves them out, goes to sleep and can't find them where he left them when he awakens. They had fallen into the underworld. Enkidu asks him what is wrong and Gilgamesh asks him to retrieve them, giving him instructions on how to behave in the underworld. Enkidu enters the "Great Dwelling" through a gate, but he broke several of the underworld taboos of which Gilgamesh warned, including the wearing of clean clothes and sandals, 'good' oil, carrying a weapon or staff, making a noise, or behaving normally towards ones family (Kramer 1963: pp. 132-133). For these violations he was "held fast by 'the outcry of the nether world'". Gilgamesh appeals to Enlil, who refuses to help. Intervention by Enki, rescued the hero - or at least raised his shade for Gilgamesh to speak with.
"Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven"
He rejects Inanna's advances, so she sends the "Bull of Heaven" to ravage Erech in retribution. (Kramer 1963 p. 262)
"Death of Gilgamesh" (Pritchard pp. 50-52, Kramer 1963 pp. 130-131)
Gilgamesh is fated by Enlil to die but also to be unmatched as a warrior. When he dies, his wife and household servants make offerings (of themselves?) for Gilgamesh to the deities of the underworld.
He is given a palace in the nether world and venerated as lesser god of the dead. It is respectful to pay him a visit upon arrival. If he knew you in life or is of your kin he may explain the rules of Kur to you - which he helps to regulate.
His son and successor was either Ur-lugal or Urnungal.
(see Babylonian Gilgamesh)
Enkidu
Gilgamesh's servant and friend. He assists Gilgamesh in putting back Agga's seige of Erech.
He accompanies Gilgamesh and his soldiers on the trip to the "Land of the Living". Probably after an initial encounter with Huwawa, Gilgamesh falls asleep and Enkidu awakens him. They come upon Huwawa and Gilgamesh distracts him with flatery, then puts a nose ring on him and binds his arms. Huwawa grovels to Gilgamesh and Enkidu and Gilgamesh almost releases him. Enkidu argues against it and when Huwawa protests, he decapitates Huwawa. Gilgamesh is angered by Enkidu's rash action.
The main body of the Gilgamesh tale includes a trip to the nether-world. Enkidu enters the "Great Dwelling" through a gate, in order to recover Gilgamesh's pukku and mikku, objects of an uncertain nature. He broke several taboos of the underworld, including the wearing of clean clothes and sandals, 'good' oil, carrying a weapon or staff, making a noise, or behaving normally towards ones family (Kramer 1963: pp. 132-133). For these violations he was "held fast by 'the outcry of the nether world'". Intervention by Enki, rescued the hero or at least raised his shade for Gilgamesh to speak with.
Kur
Kur literally means "mountain", "foreign land", or "land" and came to be identified both with the underworld and, more specifically, the area which either was contained by or contained the Abzu. (Kramer 1961 p. 76) In the prelude to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Underworld, Ereshkigal was carried off into the Kur as it's prize at about the same time as An and Enlil carried off the heaven and the earth. Later in that same passage, Enki also struggled with Kur as and presumably was victorious, thereby able to claim the title "Lord of Kur" (the realm). Kramer suggests that Kur was a dragon-like creature, calling to mind Tiamat and Leviathan. The texts suggests that Enki's struggle may have been with instruments of the land of kur - its stones or its creatures hurling stones. (Kramer 1961 p. 37-38, 78-79) (See also Apsu and Tiamat.)
In "The Feats and Exploits of Ninurta", that deity sets out to destroy the Kur. Kur initially intimidates Ninurta into retreating, but when Ninurta returns with greater resolve, Kur is destroyed. This looses the waters of the Abzu, causing the fields to be flooded with unclean waters. Ninurta dams up the Abzu by piling stones over Kur's corpse. He then drains these waters into the Tigris. (Kramer 1961 pp. 80-82). The identification of Ninurta's antagonist in this passage as Kur appears to be miscast. Black and Green identify his foe as the demon Asag, who was the spawn of An and Ki, and who produced monstrous offspring with Kur. The remainder of the details of this story are the same as in Kramer's account, but with Asag replacing Kur. In other versions, Ninurta is replaced byAdad/Ishkur. (Black & Green pp. 35-36)
"Inanna and Mt. Ebih": Inanna is also described in Hymns as a destroyer of Kur. If one, as Kramer does, identifies Kur with Mt. Ebih, then we learn that it has directed fear against the gods, the Anunnaki and the land, sending forth rays of fire against the land. Inanna declares to An that she will attack Mt. Ebih unless it submits. An warns against such an attack, but Inanna procedes anyway and destroys it. (Kramer 1961 pp. 82-83).
Gugalanna (Gugal-ana)
He is Ereshkigal's husband, and according to Kramer, the Bull of Heaven. (Wolkstein and Kramer p. 55) Black and Green tentatively identify him with Ennugi, god of canals and dikes, rather than the Bull of Heaven. (Black and Green p. 77) After Gilgamesh spurned Inanna, she sends the Bull of Heaven to terrorize Erech. (Kramer 1963 p. 262)
Huwawa
Guardian of the cedar of the heart in the the "Land of the living", Huwawa has dragon's teeth, a lion's face, a roar like rushing flood water, huge clawed feet and a thick mane. He lived there in a cedar house. He appears to have attacked Gilgamesh, Enkidu and company when they felled that cedar. They then come upon Huwawa and Gilgamesh distracts him with flatery, then puts a nose ring on him and binds his arms. Huwawa grovels to Gilgamesh and Enkidu and Gilgamesh almost releases him. Enkidu argues against it and when Huwawa protests, he decapitates Huwawa. See also theBabylonian Humbaba
Gods in Kur with palaces who are due reverence:

Namtar - "Fate", the demon responsible for death. Namtar has no hands or feet and does not eat or drink. (Pritchard p. 51)
Hubishag
Ningishzida - the god of dawn
Dimpemekug - due gifts, no palace
Neti - the chief gatekeeper
the scribe of Kur - due gifts, no palace
The Sumerians had many other deities as well, most of which appear to have been minor.
IV. What about the Underworld?
The underworld of the Sumerians is revealed, to some extent, by a composition about the death and afterlife of the king and warlord Ur-Nammu. After having died on the battlefield, Ur- Nammu arrives below, where he offers sundry gifts and sacrifices to the "seven gods" of the nether world:
...Nergal, [the deified] Gilgamesh, Ereshkigal [the queen of the underworld, who is either given to Kur in the underworld or given dominion over the underworld in the prelude to Gilgamesh (Kramer & Maier 1989: p. 83) (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983: p. 4)] , Dumuzi [the shepherd, Inanna's husband], Namtar, Hubishag, and Ningishzida - each in his own palace; he also presented gifts to Dimpimekug and to the "scribe of the nether- world."... [After arriving at his assigned spot] ...certain of the dead were turned over to him, perhaps to be his attendants, and Gilgamesh, his beloved brother, explained to him the rules and regulations of the nether world. (Kramer 1963: p. 131)
Another tablet indicates that the sun, moon, and their respective gods, spent time in the underworld as well. The sun journeyed there after setting, and the moon rested there at the end of the month. Both Utuand Nanna '''decreed the fate' of the dead" while there. (Kramer 1963: p. 132) Dead heroes ate bread, drank, and quenched the dead's thirst with water. The gods of the nether world, the deceased, and his city, were prayed to for the benefit of the dead and his family.
The Sumerian version of Gilgamesh includes a trip to the nether world as well. In the prologue, Enki sails for the Kur, presumably to rescue Ereshkigal after she was given over to Kur. He is assailed by creatures with stones. The main body of the tale includes a trip to the nether world as well. Enkidu enters the "Great Dwelling" through a gate, in order to recover Gilgamesh's pukku and mikku, objects of an uncertain nature. He broke several taboos of the underworld, including the wearing of clean clothes and sandals, 'good' oil, carrying a weapon or staff, making a noise, or behaving normally towards ones family (Kramer 1963: pp. 132-133). For these violations he was "held fast by 'the outcry of the nether world'". Intervention by Enki, rescued the hero.
When Enlil visits the nether world, he must pass by a gatekeeper, followed by a "man of the river" and a "man of the boat" - all of whom act as guardians.(Kramer 1961 pp. 45-47)
Inanna also visits Kur, which results in a myth reminiscent of the Greek seasonal story of Persephone. She sets out to witness the funeral rites of her sister-in-law Ereshkigal's husband Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven. She takes precaution before setting out, by telling her servant Ninshubur to seek assistance from Enlil, Nanna, or Enki at their shrines, should she not return. Inanna knocks on the outer gates of Kur and the gatekeeper, Neti, questions her. He consults with queen Ereshkigal and then allows Inanna to pass through the seven gates of the underworld. After each gate, she is required to remove adornments and articles of clothing, until after the seventh gate, she is naked. The Annuna pass judgment against her and Ereshkigal slays her and hangs her on the wall (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983 p. 60)
Inanna is rescued by the intervention of Enki. He creates two sexless creatures that empathize with Ereshkigal's suffering, and thereby gain a gift - Inanna's corpse. They restore her to life with the Bread of Life and the Water of Life, but the Sumerian underworld has a conservation of death law. No one can leave without providing someone to stay in their stead. Inanna is escorted by galla/demons past Ninshubur and members of her family. She doesn't allow them to claim anyone until she sees Dumuzi on his throne in Uruk. They then seize Dumuzi, but he escapes them twice by transforming himself, with the aid of Utu. Eventually he is caught and slain. Inanna spies his sister, Geshtinanna, in mourning and they go to Dumuzi. She allows Dumuzi, the shepherd, to stay in the underworld only six months of the year, while Geshtinanna will stay the other six. (Wolkstein & Kramer pp. 60-89) As with the Greek story of the kidnapping of Persephone, this linked the changing seasons, the emergence of the plants from the ground, with the return of a harvest deity from the nether world. Although he had always been a shepherd (and possibly a mortal king) he was blessed with the powers of fertility following the consummation of his marriage to Inanna in "The Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi".
As the farmer, let him make the fields fertile,
As the shepherd, let him make the sheepfolds multiply,
Under his reign let there be vegetation,
Under his reign let there be rich grain (Wolkstein & Kramer p. 45)
Geshtinanna is also associated with growth, but where her brother rules over the spring harvested grain, she rules over the autumn harvested vines (Wolkstein & Kramer p. 168)
V. What are me anyway?
Another important concept in Sumerian theology, was that of me. The me were universal decrees of divine authority. They are the invocations that spread arts, crafts, and civilization. The me were assembled by Enlil in Ekur and given to Enki to guard and impart to the world, beginning with Eridu, his center of worship. From there, he guards the me and imparts them on the people. He directs the me towards Ur and Meluhha and Dilmun, organizing the world with his decrees. Later, Inanna comes to Enki and complains at having been given too little power from his decrees. In a different text, she gets Enki drunk and he grants her more powers, arts, crafts, and attributes - a total of ninety-four me. Inanna parts company with Enki to deliver the me to her cult center at Erech. Enki recovers his wits and tries to recover theme from her, but she arrives safely in Erech with them. (Kramer & Maier 1989: pp. 38-68)
VI. I've heard that there are a lot of Biblical parallels in Sumerian literature. What are they?
Traces of Sumerian religion survive today and are reflected in writings of the Bible. As late as Ezekiel, there is mention of a Sumerian deity. In Ezekiel 8:14, the prophet sees women of Israel weeping forTammuz (Dumuzi) during a drought.
The bulk of Sumerian parallels can, however be found much earlier, in the book of Genesis. As in Genesis, the Sumerians' world is formed out of the watery abyss and the heavens and earth are divinely separated from one another by a solid dome. The second chapter of Genesis introduces the paradise Eden, a place which is similar to the Sumerian Dilmun, described in the myth of "Enki and Ninhursag". Dilmun is a pure, bright, and holy land - now often identified with Bahrain in the Persian Gulf. It is blessed by Enki to have overflowing, sweet water. Enki fills it with lagoons and palm trees. He impregnates Ninhursag and causes eight new plants to grow from the earth. Eden, "in the East" (Gen. 2:8) has a river which also "rises" or overflows, to form four rivers including the Tigris and Euphrates. It too is lush and has fruit bearing trees. (Gen. 2:9-10) In the second version of the creation of man "The Lord God formed man out of the clay of the ground and blew into his nostrils the breath of life, and so man became a living being." Enki and Ninmah (Ninhursag) use a similar method in creating man. Nammu, queen of the abyss and Enki's mother, bids Enki to "Kneed the 'heart' of the clay that is over the Abzu " and "give it form" (Kramer & Maier p. 33) From there the similarities cease as the two create several malformed humans and then the two deities get into an argument.
Returning to Enki and Ninhursag, we find a possible parallel to the creation of Eve. Enki consumed the plants that were Ninhursag's children and so was cursed by Ninhursag, receiving one wound for each plant consumed. Enlil and a fox act on Enki's behalf to call back Ninhursag in order to undo the damage. She joins with him again and bears eight new children, each of whom are the cure to one of his wounds. The one who cures his rib is named Ninti, whose name means the Queen of months, (Kramer & Maier 1989: pp. 28-30) the lady of the rib, or she who makes live. This association carries over to Eve. (Kramer, History Begins at Sumer 1981: pp. 143-144) In Genesis, Eve is fashioned from Adam's rib and her name hawwa is related to the Hebrew word hay or living. (New American Bible p. 7.) The prologue of "Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Underworld" may contain the predecessor to the tree of knowledge of good and evil. This tree not only contains a crafty serpent, but also Lilith, the legendary first wife of Adam. The huluppu tree is transplanted by Inanna from the banks of the Euphrates to her garden in Uruk, where she finds that:
...a serpent who could not be charmed
made its nest in the roots of the tree,
The Anzu bird set his young in the branches of the tree,
And the dark maid Lilith built her home in the trunk. (Wolkstein and Kramer 1983: p. 8)
It should be noted that Kramer's interpretation that this creature is Lilith has come into quiestion of late.
Another possible Sumerian carry-over related to the Fall of man is the lack of "pangs of childbearing" for those in Dilmun. In particular, Ninhursag gives birth in nine days, not nine months, and the pass "like good princely cream" (Kramer 1981: p. 142,145) or "fine oil" (Kramer & Maier 1989: p. 25)
The quarrels between herder god and farmer deity pairs such as Lahar and Ashnan or Enten and Emesh are similar in some respects to the quarrels of Cain and Abel. In the Sumerian versions death appears to be avoided, although we do not have the complete Lahar and Ashnan story. (Kramer 1961 pp. 49-51, 53-54)
The ten patriarchs in Genesis born prior to the flood lived very long lives, most in excess of 900 years. The seventh patriarch, Enoch, lived only 365 years before he "walked with God". (Genesis 5). The account which numbers those Patriarchs as ten is attributed to the Priestly source. The Yahwist source (J), details only seven Patriarchs prior to Noah, so that with him included, there are eight antediluvian patriarchs. (Genesis 4: 17-18) The eight antediluvian kings of in the Sumerian King List also lived for hundreds of years. (Kramer 1963 p. 328) S. H. Hooke notes another version of the Sumerian King list, found in Larsa details ten antediluvian kings. (Hooke, p. 130) The clearest Biblical parallel comes from the story of the Flood. In the Sumerian version, the pious Ziusudra is informed of the gods decision to destroy mankind by listening to a wall. He too weathers the deluge aboard a huge boat. Noah's flood lasts a long time, but Ziusudra comes to rest within seven days and not the near year of the Bible. He does not receive a covenant, but is given eternal life. (Kramer 1963 pp. 163-164; Kramer 1961 pp. 97-98)
As far as the New Testament goes, many also draw a parallel between Dumuzi and Jesus because Dumuzi is a shepherd-king and he is resurrected from the dead. This is perhaps appealing to some as Dumuzi's Akkadian analog, Tammuz, appears in the Bible, however Dumuzi's periodic return from the underworld is not unique even in Sumerian literature. His sister Geshtinanna also rises from the dead, and if one counts those born as deities, Inanna does as well. Periodic death and rebirth is a common theme in agricultural myths where the return of the deities from the earth mirrors a return to life of plants.
VII. Sources
Black, Jeremy and Green, Anthony, Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary, University of Texas Press, Austin, 1992. This up-to-date and thorough resource on Mesopotamian mythology has great photos and illustrations by Tessa Rickards and very useful entries which often indicate the times and places when variant tales were current. My only complaint is that it is not always clear whether information in an entry is applicable to the Sumerian, Akkadian, or both versions of a particular deity or hero.
Crawford, Harriet, Sumer and the Sumerians, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991. (This is a briefer but more up to date archaeological look at the Sumerians than you'll find with Kramer. There isn't much mythic content in this one, but there are many wonderful figures detailing city plans, and the structure of temples and other buildings.)
Jacobsen, Thorkild, The Treasures of Darkness, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1976. A good alternative to Kramer, Jacobsen explores Mesopotamian religious development from early Sumerian times through the Babylonian Enuma Elish. Most of the book winds up being on the Sumerians.
Kramer, Samuel Noah, and Maier, John, Myths of Enki, the Crafty God, Oxford University Press, New York,1989. The most recent work that I've been able to find by Kramer. They translate and analyze all of the availible myths which include Enki. I've only seen it availible in hardcover and I haven't seen it in a bookstore yet.
Kramer, Samuel Noah, Sumerian Mythology, Harper & Brothers, New York, 1961. This slim volume contains much of the mythological material that wound up in The Sumerians but concentrated in one spot and without much cultural or historical detail. Many of the myths are more developed here, some of which are only glossed over in The Sumerians, however in some cases The Sumeriansholds the more complete or updated myth.
Kramer, Samuel Noah The Sumerians The University of Chicago Press, Chicago,1963. (This is a more thorough work than Kramer's Section at the end of Inanna, but the intervening 20 or so years of additional research and translation allow Inanna's section to be perhaps more complete, regarding mythology.)
Wolkstein, Diane and Kramer, Samuel Noah, Inanna: Queen of Heaven and Earth, Harper & Row, NY, 1983. (Ms. Wolkstein's verse translations of the Inanna/Dummuzi cycle of myths are excellent, but differ somewhat Kramer's originals. Kramer gives a 30 or so page description of Sumerian cosmology and society at the end).
The New American Bible, Catholic Book Publishing Co., New York, 1970.
VIII. Other books of interest
Algaze, Guillermo, "The Uruk Expansion", Current Anthropology, Dec. 1989. This article helped with the introduction material.
Hooke, S. H. Middle Eastern Mythology, Penguin Books, New York, 1963. This work covers Sumerian, Babylonian, Canaanite/Ugaritic, Hittite, and Hebrew mythologic material in brief and with comparisons.
Fagan, B. M., People of the Earth, Glenview Il, Scott Forsman, 1989. This archaeology text book helped provide some of the introductory material.
Kramer, Samuel Noah, History Begins at Sumer, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1981. (This text runs through a bunch of "firsts" that Kramer attributes to the Sumerians. I only looked at it briefly, but it seemed to contain about the same information as was in The Sumerians only in a "Wow neat!" format instead of something more coherent.)
Pritchard J. B., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, Princeton, 1955. There is also a 1969 edition of this work and a companion volume of pictures. It seems to be the authoritative source for all complete texts of the Sumerians, Babylonians, Canaanites, Hittites, and perhaps other groups as well. It's pricy but many libraries have a copy.
Stephenson, Neal, Snowcrash, Bantam Books, New York, 1992. Cyberpunk meets "Inanna, Enki, and the Me".
Wooley, C. Leonard, Excavations at Ur, 1954. This is one of the earlier works on the subject, and as such is not as complete as the others although it is of historical interest.
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Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses
Assyrian Gods and Goddesses and Babylonian Gods and Goddesses
By N.S. Gill, About.com Guide
Older Gods
Apsu - underworld ocean; begetter of the skies and earth
Tiamat - primeval chaos; bearer of the skies and earth
Lahmu & Lahamu
Anshar
Kishar
Anu - sky god, father & king of the gods
Antu(m) - 1st consort of Anu
Aruru (Ninmah, Mami) - mother goddess; midwife of the gods
Mammetum - maker or mother of fate
Nammu - associated with water.
Anunnaki Gods*
Younger Gods
Ellil (Enlil) - initially, leader of the pantheon
Ea (Enki, Nudimmud)** - god of the waters
Mummu - craftsman
Qingu - battle leader
Sin (Nannar) - moon god
Ningal - the consort of Sin -
Ishtar (Ishhara, Irnini, Inanna) - goddess of love, procreation, and war
Siduri - barmaid
Shamash (Babbar, Utu) - sun god
Aia - Shamash's consort
Kakka - Anshar - and Anu's vizier
Ninlil - Elil's consort
Nusku - god of fire and Ellil's vizier
Gerra (Gibil) - god of fire

Ishum - god of fire
Kalkal - Ellil's doorkeeper
Nash - a pure goddess
Zaltu - strife
Ninurta - chamberlain of the war god
Ninsun - great queen
Marduk - supplants other Babylonian deities to become central figure
Bel (Canaanite Baal - cleverest; sage of the gods
Ashur - god of Assyria and war, symbolized by a dragon and winged disk
Shullat - Shamash's servant
Papsukkal - vizier of the great gods
Hanish - weather god's servant
Adad - a storm god associated with lightning
Shara
Nin-ildu - carpenter
Gushkin-banda - creator of god and man, goldsmith god
Nin-agal - patron of smiths.
Chthonic Deities***
Ereshkigal (Allatu) - supreme goddess of underworld
Belit-tseri - tablet-scribe of the underworld
Namtar(a) - the fate-cutter, herald of death
Sumuqan - cattle god
Nergal (Erragal, Erra, Engidudu) - underworld; hunter; god of war and plague
Irra - plague god
Enmesharra - underworld god
Lamashtu - dread female demon also known as 'she who erases'
Nabu god of writing and wisdom whose symbol is a stylus
Ningizzia - guardian of the gate of heaven; a god of the underworld
Tammuz (Dumuzi, Adonis)**** - vegetation
Belili (Geshtinanna) -
Gizzida (Gishzida) - consort of Belili, doorkeeper of Anu
Nissaba (Nisaba) - cereal grain harvest
Dagan - fertility and the underworld
Birdu - an underworld god
Sharru - god of submission
Urshambi - boatman to Utnapishtim
Ennugi - controller of the Anunnaki
Geshtu-egod whose blood and intelligence are used by Mami to create man.
Sources:
*(URL = < www.sron.ruu.nl/~jheise/akkadian/mesopotamia.html>)
[(URL = ) Anunnaki Gods
**(URL = < marlowe.wimsey.com/~rshand/streams/vela/ea.html>)
***(URL = )
****(URL = )
Notes on the God Categories
Annuna (Anunnaki) - An's children. Christopher Siren says An may have been the main god of the Mesopotamian pantheon before 2500 B.C. The Annuna lived on Dulkug or Du-ku, the "holy mound".
Chthonic Deities - [Technical term to know] From a Greek word meaning "of the earth". "Chthonic" is used to refer to earth gods as opposed to sky gods. It also covers gods of the Underworld. Chthonic gods are often fertility deities. Chthonic gods are often associated with mystery cults.
The Assyro-Babylonian Mythology FAQ version 1.9html
by Christopher B. Siren (Nov. 1994)
cbsiren at alum dot mit dot edu
last revised (October, 2003)
changes since last revision:
October 2003: added the Biblical parallels section (in progress) and some more citations
August 1999: added clarifying remark to Bahamut answer.
October 1995: lengthened Bahamut answer; added a couple external links; made changes for move to UNH.
The web version at home.comcast.net/~chris.s/assyrbabyl-faq.html is the most up to date, however the last copy of this FAQ posted to Usenet should also be available via anonymous ftp at:
rtfm.mit.edu at /pub/usenet/news.answers/assyrbabyl-faq
I. Overview (including regional history)
II. So these are just like the Sumerian deities right?
III. Who were the gods and heroes of the Babylonians?
A. The older gods
B. The younger Anunnaki and Igigi
C. The chthonic gods
D. The heroes and monsters
IV. What about the Underworld and Heaven and all that?
V. Hey! I read that Cthulhu is really some Babylonian or Sumerian god, how come he's not there under Kutu?
VI. So, in AD&D, Tiamat is this five-headed evil dragon, but they got her from the Enuma Elish, right? What about her counterpart, Bahamut?
VII. I've heard there are Biblical parallels in Babylonian literature. What are they anyway?
VIII. Where did you get this info and where can I find out more?
I. Overview (including regional history)
First, some definitions: Mesopotamia, in general, refers to the area of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Assyria, was the northern portion of Mesopotamia, who's capital was Ashur (until 883 BCE, when it was moved to Calah/Nimrud) and whose reach included the major city of Nineveh (Ninua). Sumer refers to the southern delta region, whose primary cities included Ur, Uruk, and Eridu. Akkad was a region north of Sumer which included the area around modern Baghdad as well as the ancient sites of Babylon, Kish, and Nippur.
The political organization of the region was basically a collection of city-states. Sargon of Agade (2371-16 BCE) united the regions of Sumer and Akkad. His descendants eventually lost control of the empire due to pressures from the Hurrians, the Hittites, and other invaders, not to mention internal pressures. In the south Sumer again gained ascendancy, dominated by the city-state Ur. Sumer then collapsed under the Amorites around 2000 BCE. They established many sub- kingdoms including Assyria and Babylon.
Assyria attained a brief period of dominance under Shamshi-Adad (1813-1781 BCE) but was soon superseded by Babylon under Hammurapi (Hammurabi) (1792-50 BCE) who established what once were thought to be the first written law codes (more recent discoveries include law codes from a couple centuries prior to Hammurapi). The first Babylonian dynasty had begun in 1894 BCE, coinciding with the Old Babyonian period of literature. It collapsed in 1595 BCE when the Hittites sacked its eponymous capital.
Assyria had been taken over by the Mitanni (a Hurrian speaking kingdom) but established its independence in the mid 14th century BCE. Under Tukulti-Ninurta I Assyria dominated the entire fertile crescent in the late 13th century. By the time of Tiglath-Pileser I, about a century later it had directed more of its attention westwards towards the Levant in the West and lost control of Babylon and the south. Slowly Assyria began to expand again, reaching its apex between 750 and 650 BCE under the rulers Tiglath-Pileser III, Sargon II, Sennacherib, and Ashuribanipal (668-627 BCE). The empire collapsed from invaders with Nineveh falling to Nabopalasar of Babylon in 612 BCE and the empire dying in 605 BCE.
Meanwhile, Babylon had been reasserting itself. Nabopalasar had begun the Chaldean dynasty during his rule begining in 625 BCE. This period is also known as the Neo-Babylonian period although that term also describes the language of that era. Under Nabopalasar's son Nebuchadnezzar II, Babylon expanded westward, taking Jerusalem in 586 BCE. Babylon fell in the mid-540's to Cyrus the Persian whose empire lasted until the late 300's BCE when Alexander of Macedon established his empire and renamed the area "Mesopotamia". (See also Shawn Bayern's History Babylonia)
II. So these guys were just like the Sumerian Deities right?
Well some of them were mostly like the Sumerian Deities, but as you might expect, they have their own kinks and differences. In general the following relationships apply:
       Sumerian name       Babylonian Name

       An                  Anu
       Ki/Ninhursag        Aruru, Mammi
       Enlil               Ellil
       Enki                Ea
       Nanna               Sin
       Inanna              Ishtar
       Utu                 Shamash
       Ninlil              Mullitu, Mylitta
This is not a cut and dry relation. Sumerian and Babylonian names appear in the same Babylonian document, sometimes referring to the same entity. In addition, there are numerous local variations of these deities names which, in the next section, such 'optional' names appear in parentheses after the more prevalent name.
III. Who were the gods and the heroes of the Babylonians then?
A. The Older (genealogically) Gods:
Apsu
"The Epic of Creation (Enuma Elish): Tablet I"
He is the underworld ocean, the begetter of the skies (Anshar) and the earth (Kishar) and the father of Lahmu and Lahamu. He could not quell the noise of them or of their children, so he colluded with his vizier Mummu to silence the gods and allow his mate Tiamat to rest, after Tiamat herself rejected the idea. Ea found out about his plans, cast a sleeping spell on him and killed him.
(Dalley pp. 232-235, 318)
Tiamat
"The Epic of Creation (Enuma Elish): Tablets I-III"
She is primeval Chaos, bearer of the skies (Anshar) and the earth (Kishar) and the mother of Lahmu, and Lahamu. Traditionally conceived of as a serpent or dragon of some sort, this idea does not have any basis in the Enuma Elish itself. Within that work her physical description includes, a tail, a thigh, "lower parts" (which shake together), a belly, an udder, ribs, a neck, a head, a skull, eyes, nostrils, a mouth, and lips. She has insides, a heart, arteries, and blood. The clamor of the younger gods disturbed her, but she continued to indulge them.
When her mate Apsu and his vizier Mummu suggested that they kill the younger gods, she grew furious, then calmed down and rejected the plan. Her restless subservient gods goaded her into action after Apsu is slain. They prepared to wage war against the other gods. As Mother Hubur, (the underworld river, who fashions all things), she bore giant snakes with venom for blood, and cloaked dragons with a godlike radiance yet with a terrible visage, for the war. She rallied a horned serpent, a mushussu-dragon, a lahmu-hero, a ugallu-demon, a rabid dog, a scorpion-man, umu-demons, a fish-man, a bull-man, and eleven others underneath her champion and new lover, Qingu. She gave Qingu the Tablet of Destinies to facilitate his command and attack.
(Dalley pp. 231-249)
"The Epic of Creation (Enuma Elish): Tablets IV-V"
Marduk came with his host to attack her. Qingu's strategy initially confused him, and Tiamat tried to enspell him, hurling jibes at him. She was rebuffed and incited into single combat with Marduk. She continued to cast her spell and Marduk netted her, and threw a wind at her. She tried to swallow it and was undone - distended, shot, sliced in two and cut in the heart. Her crushed skull heralded her death, and half of her body was used to roof up the sky. Her eyes became the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
(Dalley pp. 249-257)
Lahmu and Lahamu
'the hairy one' or 'muddy' they have three pairs of curls, and are naked except for a triple sash. Dalley (p. 324)
"The Epic of Creation (Enuma Elish)>): Tablets I-III"
They were the first children of Tiamat and Apsu. Kappa was sent to fetch them by Anshar, to help send off Marduk on his fight with Tiamat and be rallied to his side. They complied and helped find a princely shrine for Marduk. (Dalley pp. 232, 244-249)
Anshar
- 'whole sky' He is the father of Anu and the child of Tiamat and Apsu. He is often paired with Kishara, and his qualities were assimilated with Ashur. When Ea learned of Tiamat's planned war, Anshar tried to stir him into attacking her first, but was rebuffed. He turned to Anu and sent him on a peace mission to Tiamat, but Anu returned unsuccessful. An assembly was convened and Marduk came forth at Ea's urging, promising to deliver Tiamat's defeated body to Anshar's feet. He required of the assembly a promise that he would be given the leadership of the pantheon after he is victorious. He had Kappa gather Lahmu, Lahamu, and the other gods together to send off Marduk on his fight and rally them to his side. When they arrive they help find a princely shrine for Marduk.
Kishar
- 'whole earth' , She is the mother of Anu and the child of Tiamat and Apsu.
Anu
- Sumerian for "heaven", a sky god, father and king of the gods. He is the son of Anshar and Kishar. He lives in the third heaven. The Eanna in Uruk was dedicated both to him and consort. His first consort was Antu. They produced the Anunnaki - the underworld gods, and the utukki - the seven evil demons. His second consort was Innina (Ishtar). He is a god of monarchs and is not friendly to the common people. He is a "King of the Igigi". He is assigned the sky as his domain in 'Atrahasis'. His 'kishru's (shooting stars) have awesome strength. He has the ability that anything he puts into words, becomes reality. He is Niudimmud's (Ea's) father.
When Anzu stole the Tablet of Destinies from Ellil, he called for one of the gods to slay Anzu and thereby greatly increase his reputation.
He gave Marduk the four winds to play with. He made a whirlwind and a flood wave and stirred up Tiamat on purpose. When Tiamat's retaliation for Apsu's death was discovered, Anshar sent him on a peace mission to her, but he returned unsuccessfully. He helps form a princely shrine for Marduk prior to his battle with Tiamat, and gives him the Anu-power of decreeing fates, such that his word is law.
He calls Dumuzi and Gizzida speak on Adapa's behalf.
He and Earth father the Sebitti. He gives them fearsome fates and powers and puts them at Erra's command, to aid in killing noisy, over-populous people and animals.
He agrees to send the Bull of Heaven after Gilgamesh on Ishtar's behalf, if she has made sure that the people of Uruk are properly provisioned for seven years. He decrees that either Gilgamesh orEnkidu must die for the slaying of Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven. He sends Kakka to Kurnugi to tell Ereshkigal to send a messenger to receive a gift from him.
(See also the Sumerian An and the Hittite Anus)
Symbol: sacred shine surmounted by the divine horned cap.
Sacred number: 60
Astrological region: heavenly equator
Sacred animal: the heavenly Bull
Antu(m)
- Sumerian for "the earth", she is a colorless being who was the first consort of Anu. They produced the Anunnaki - the underworld gods, and the utukki - the seven evil demons. She was replaced byIsthar (Inanna) who is sometimes her daughter.
Aruru (Ninmah, Nintu, Ninhursaga, Belet-ili, Mami)
-She is the mother goddess and was responsible for the creation of man with the help of Enlil or Enki. She is also called the womb goddess, and midwife of the gods. Acting on Ea's advice and direction, she mixed clay with the blood of the god Geshtu-e, in order to shape and birth seven men and seven women. These people would bear the workload of the Igigi. She also added to the creation of Gilgamesh, and, at Anu's command, made Enkidu in Anu's image by pinching off a piece of clay, throwing it into the wilderness, and birthing him there. Ea called her to offer her belovedNinurta as the one who should hunt Anzu. She does so. (See also the Hittite Hannahannas)
Mammetum
- the maker or mother of fate.
Nammu
- one of "the pure goddesses", Ea's mother, associated with fresh water.
B. The Anunnaki, Igigi, and the Younger Gods
Ellil (Enlil) - Sumerian for "wind/storm-god".
Initially the leader of the pantheon, he has since relinquished his spot to Anu. Possible slayer of Enmesharra and avenger of his father Anu. His role in this was upplanted by Marduk by the Babylonians. He is a short-tempered god who was responsible for the great flood. He is the creator of mankind. He is thought to favor and help those in need. He guards the "tablets of destiny", which allow him to determines the fate of all things animate or inanimate. They was once stolen from him by a Zu, a storm- bird (a bird with some human qualities). They were recovered and Zu faced judgment by Ellil. His consort is Ninlil, his chief-minister is Nusku. He was also god of the lands and of the earth. He is a "King of the Anunnaki". He was their counselor warrior. He and his people receive the earth in 'Atrahasis'. His temple is Duranki.
When the Igigi rebelled against him, and surrounded his house and called for Anu. After man was created in response to the Igigi's grievances, he grew weary of their noise and released several disasters upon them, after each one, man recovered and then he released a new one. The disasters included disease, flood, drought, and the great flood. He appointed Humbaba to guard the cedar forest and terrify mankind. He decreed that Enkidu must die for the slaying of the Bull of Heaven and Humbaba. He does not answer Gilgamesh's plea to restore Enkidu to life. He found a throne for Etana to rule from in Kish. He appointed Anzu as the guardian of his bath chamber, but while bathing, Anzu stole from him the Tablet of Destinies, and his Ellil-power. Ninurta, with Ea's advise and Belet-ili's urgings slew Anzu and recovered the Tablet of Destinies. (See also the Hittite Ellil)
Symbol: Seven small circles representing the Pleiades.
Sacred number: 50
Astrological region: north of "the way of Anu" ie. 12 degrees north of the equator.
Ea (Enki, Nudimmud)
- god of the waters. He is in charge of the bolt which bars the sea. He knows everything. He is the "Lord of Wisdom" and "Lord of Incantations". When he speaks, of a thing, it will be made. He is the son of Anu, but sometimes he is the son of Anshar. Dumkina is his consort. He created Zaltu as a complement to Ishtar. He discovered the plot of Apsu and Mummu, put Apsu under a sleeping spell, and slew him and put Mummu into a daze, tied him up, and slew him. He then named his quarters Apsu, the underworld ocean that supports the world. He and Damkina produced Bel and Marduk. (Bel is likely to be another name for Marduk.)
He learned that Tiamat was planning a war of revenge against the gods. His father Anshar tries to spur him into making the first attack against Tiamat, but Ea rebuffs him. When Anu's peace mission fails, he urges Marduk into action.
He suggests the method of creating man, in response to the heavy workload of the Igigi. As mankind's patron, he is the instructor of all crafts, writing, building, farming, and magic. He advises mankind when other gods would do them harm. He granted Adapa understanding, to teach mankind. When Adapa used this knowledge to break the wing of the South Wind, he cursed him and told him to complain of Dumuzi and Gizzida's absence to Anu. While in Anu's court, he advises Adapa not to eat the bread of eternal life (lest he forfeit his life on earth). He refuses to flood mankind for Ellil. Eventually he accedes, but only after advising Atrahasis to build a boat in which to weather the flood.
He tells Nergal to allow Enkidu's spirit to visit with Gilgamesh. When Ea is informed of Ishtar's imprisonment in the Underworld, he creates 'His appearance is bright' to stand at Ereshkigal's gate and mellow her mood and have her swear an oath by the great gods. He instructs Nergal on how to build the gift throne for Ereshkigal, and hides him with spring water to hide him from Namtar after he returned from the underworld.
When Anu and the gods could not locate a volunteer to kill Anzu, he told the Igiggi that he would pick one. He instructs Belet-ili/Mami to send Ninurta to slay Anzu and, through Sharur advises Ninurta on how to defeat the creature. (See also the Canaanite Heyan aka Kothar-u-Khasis and the Hittite Ayas)
Symbol: Ram's head; goat-fish (a goat's head on a fish's body)
Sacred number: 40
Astrological region: 12 degrees south in the sky (includes Pisces and Aquarius)
Mummu
- the craftsman god. He is attendant to Ea and Apsu's vizier. He is very fond of Apsu and colludes with him to disperse the younger gods when they disturb Tiamat, even after Tiamat rejects the plan. Ea found out about his plan, enspelled him and tied him up.
Qingu (older spelling - Kingu)
- Tiamat's battle leader and second husband/lover after Apsu. He is promoted and enhanced to a leading position from among the ranks. Tiamat places the Tablet of Destinies in his possession, giving him the Anu-power, such that his word is law and affects reality. He gives his army fire-quenching breath and paralyzing venom. His battle strategy initially confuses Marduk. He is defeated by Marduk and counted among the dead gods. For his part in the war he was made by Marduk to provide the blood for the creation of man - filling the role that Geshtu-e takes in other versions of the creation of man story.
Sin (Nannar)
- moon god, son of Enlil. He has a beard of Lapis Lazuli and rides a winged bull. His consort is Ningal. He is the father of Shamash. He does not answer Gilgamesh's plea to restore Enkidu to life.
Symbol: Crescent
Sacred number: 30
Sphere of influence: the moon, calendars, vegetation, cattle fertility
Ningal
- the consort of Sin, the mother of Shamash
Ishtar (Ishhara, Irnini, Inanna)
She is Anu's second consort, daughter of Anu and Antum, (sometimes daughter of Sin), and sometimes the sister of Ereshkigal. She is the goddess of love, procreation, and war. She is armed with a quiver and bow. Her temples have special prostitutes of both genders. She is often accompanied by a lion, and sometimes rides it. The Eanna in Uruk is dedicated both to her and Anu. As Irnini, she has a parakku (throne-base) at the cedar mountain.
"The Descent of Ishtar to the Underworld"
She determines to go to the Underworld. She threatened to smash the gate and raise the dead so that they would eat and outnumber the living unless the gatekeeper would open it for her. She holds the great keppu-toy (a whipping top). She is allowed in by the gate keeper, who takes her through seven gates to Ereshkigal's realm. By Ereshkigal's rites, she is stripped of items of clothing as she passes through each of the gates: first her crown, then her earrings, then her necklace, then her tudditu (breast pins), then her belt of birthstones, then her wrist and ankle bangles, and finally her garment. While in the underworld, no creatures engaged in acts of procreation. She was kept in Egalgina and brought forth by Namtar after being sprinkled with the water of life, and after 'His appearance is bright' has been cursed. She is led back out through the gates, given back her accouterments, and released in exchange for Dumuzi (Tammuz). (Image from the Oriental Institute at U. Chicago)
"The Epic of Gilgamesh"
She loved Tammuz in her youth, although he spends half the year in the nether world wailing. She loved a lion, a stallion, a shepherd, all of whom she required great sacrifice from and abandoned. She loved Ishullanu, a gardener who offered her fruit, but was taken aback when she revealed herself to him, so she turned him into a frog.
After Gilgamesh cleans himself up, following his defeat of Humbaba, she asks him to be her lover and husband, and offers him many gifts and the homage of earthly rulers and kingdoms. She is rejected, both because of her godly nature, and as a fair-weather lover. Ishtar asks Anu to send the Bull of Heaven to kill Gilgamesh, and he agrees.
(See also the Hittite Shaushka and the Canaanite Astarte and Anat)
Symbol: an eight or sixteen-pointed star
Sacred number: 15
Astrological region: Dibalt (Venus) and the Bowstar (Sirius)
Sacred animal: lion, (dragon)
Siduri
- the barmaid, a manifestation of Ishtar who dwells at the lip of the sea, beyond which is the Land of Life, where Utnapishtim lives. She speaks with Gilgamesh. She wears a veil.
Shamash (Babbar, Utu)
Shamash is the sun god, the son of Sin and Ningal. He rises from the mountains with rays out of his shoulders. He enters and exits the underworld through a set of gates in the mountain (exits from Mt. Mashu, "Gilgamesh IX ii") guarded by scorpion-people. He travels both on foot and in a chariot, pulled by fiery mules. He upholds truth, and justice. He is a lawgiver and informs oracles. Nergal is a corrupt aspect of his nature.
"Etana"
In Kish, the eagle and the serpent swore an oath to Shamash that they would not overstep the limits of Shamash. The eagle broke the oath and ate the eggs of the serpent. Shamash, 'whose net is as wide as earth', told the serpent how to serve the eagle justice. The serpent lured the eagle with a bull carcass and captured him. The eagle requested to be spared and the serpent refused, saying that Shamash's punishment would fall on him if he did not carry it out. He cut the eagle's wings and left him to die in a pit. The eagle prayed to Shamash for mercy, and Shamash refused to help personally, but sent Etana to help the eagle. He agreed to help Etana's infertility problem if Etana would help the eagle.
"Epic of Gilgamesh"
He loves Gilgamesh, hates evil and instigates Gilgamesh's quest against Humbaba, guiding him and receiving prayers from him along the way. He tries to intercede to Ellil on Enkidu's behalf, but is unsuccessful. He rebukes Enkidu for cursing the Stalker and the temple prostitute for bringing him out of the wild.
See also the Hittite Sun-god and the Canaanite Shapshu.
Symbol: Solar disk with a four point star inside with rays coming from between the points. A winged disk.
Sacred Number: 20
Aia
- Shamash's consort
Kakka
Anshar and Anu's vizier, who is sent to Kurnugi to deliver Ereshkigal the message that Anu wishes to deliver a gift to her via one of her messengers. Anshar sends him to round up Lahmu and Lahamu to send off Marduk for his battle with Tiamat and rally them to his side.
Ninlil
Ellil's consort.
(see also the Sumerian Ninlil.)
Nusku
the god of fire and Ellil's vizier.
Gerra(Gibil)
- the god of fire, Anunitu (Antu)'s son. He despairs and will not attack Anzu after Anzu has stolen the Tablet of Destinies from Ellil.
Ishum (Hendursanga - 'lofty mace')
- He is the god of fire, and is adept at using weapons. He lights the way in front of Erra and the Sebitti. He advises Erra against attacking Marduk or his people in Babylon. When Erra takes Marduk's seat, Ishum persuades him against destroying Babylon, finally appeasing him by promising that the other gods would acknowledge themselves as his servants.
Kalkal
- Ellil's doorkeeper in Nippur.
Dumkina
- Ea's lover, mother of Bel and Marduk (note Bel is likely to be another title for Marduk).
Nash (Nanshe)
- one of "the pure goddesses", Ea's daughter. Her cult center is Sirara near Lagash.
Zaltu
- "strife", goddess created by Ea to complement Ishtar.
Ninurta (shares some characteristics with Ningrisu)
Chamberlain of the Anunnaki, the war god, the champion of the land. He is the child of Ellil and Mami. He was born in Ekur, Ellil's temple in Ekur. He is responsible for some small scale irrigation. He has a bow and arrow, sometimes they are poisoned. He also carries the mace, Sharur, which can act as a messenger between Ninurta and other beings (notably Ea). He can marshal the Seven of Battle, who can generate whirlwinds.
He bound the Mountain of Stones in his fury, conquered the Anzu with his weapon and slew the bull-man inside the Sea. (Dalley p. 204).
After the Tablet of Destinies was stolen, Belit-ili, at Ea's advice, instructed him to kill Anzu. Initially his assault was futile, but Sharur relayed advise from Ea to him, which, when it was carried out allowed him to slay Anzu in a great onslaught. He recovered the Tablet of Destinies for Ellil. Nissaba performs a purification ceremony on him and he receives the following new names and shrines: Duku - 'holy mound' in Sumerian, Hurabtil - an Elamite god, Shushinak - patron god of the Elamite city Susa, Lord of the Secret, Pabilsag - god of the antediluvian city Larak, Nin-Azu - god of Eshunna, Ishtaran - god of Der, Zababa - warrior god of Kish, Lugalbanda - Gilgamesh's father, Lugal-Marada - patron god of Marad, Warrior Tishpak - similar to Nin-Azu, Warrior of Uruk, Lord of the Boundary-Arrow, Panigara - a warrior god, and Papsukkal - vizier of the great gods.
Ninsun
Known as 'the great wild cow' and the great queen, she is Gilgamesh's mother and Lugalbanda's mate. She is wise, 'knows everything' and interprets Gilgamesh's dreams. She offers incense and drink toShamash and questions his decision to send Gilgamesh against Humbaba. When doing so, she wears a circlet on her head and an ornament on her breast. She adopts Enkidu prior to the quest against Humbaba.
Marduk
- son of Ea and Dumkina. He supplants the other Babylonian deities to become the central figure of their pantheon. He is a "King of the Igigi" He often works with and asks questions of his father. He has fifty names many of which are those of other deities whose attributes he usurped. He was of proud form and piercing stare, born mature, powerful, and perfect and superior. He has four eyes, four ears, and emits fire from his mouth when he speaks. He is also gifted in magic.
Anu gave him the four winds to play with. When Anu's peace mission to Tiamat fails, Ea urges him into action. He goes before Anshar and the divine assembly and declares that he will defeat Tiamat and lay her head at his feet, but that the assembly must promise that he should be the one to fix fates and more or less assume the role of the leader of the pantheon. Anshar, Lahamu, and Anu find him a shrine and Anu instills upon him the Anu-power in which, his word decrees fate. He is proclaimed king and invested with the scepter, throne, and staff-of-office. He is given an unfaceable weapon, the flood-weapon. He takes a bow and arrow and mace. He puts lightning in front of him, marshals his winds, makes a net to encircle Tiamat, fills his body with flame. He rides his storm-chariot driven by Slayer, Pitiless, Racer, and Flyer, poison-toothed, tireless steeds. He had a spell on his lips and an anti-toxin in his hand. He led the gods to battle. (P.251-252 Dalley)
Qingu's strategy confused him. Tiamat tried to enspell him and wheedled at him. Marduk reproaches her and calls her out for single combat. She looses her temper and they fight. He unleashes his weapons at her, distended her body with winds, shot her in the belly with an arrow, split her in two and slit her heart. He defeats the rest of her forces and retrieves the Tablet of Destinies.
He smashed Tiamat's skull to herald her death and made half of her body the roof of the sky. He leveled Apsu, measured it and established numerous shrines for many of the gods. He set up stands for the gods, constructed the heavens and regulated the year, giving Shamash some dominion over the months and the year. He made the Tigris and Euphrates rivers from Tiamat's eyes and made mountains from her udders. He smashed the weapons of Tiamat's army and put images of them at the gates to the underworld. He set up his temple at Esharra and his seat in Babylon. The gods honored him as king. He put blood and bones together as and made early man to bear the work of the gods, as in Atrahasis. For Qingu's part in the war he was made to provide the blood for the creation of man. He divided the Anunnaki and placed 300 to guard the sky, and six hundred to dwell in heaven and earth. He had them create Babylon building the Esagalia temple and a high ziggurat. Anshar gave him many new names: 1. Asarluhi, 2. Marduk, 3. The Son, The Majesty of the Gods, 4. Marukka, 5. Mershakushu, 6. Lugal-dimmer-ankia (King of heaven and earth), 7. Bel, 8. Nari-lugal-dimmer-ankia, 9. Asarluhi, 10. Namtila, 11. Namru, 12. 'Asare, 13. Asar-alim, 14. Asar-alim-nuna, 15. Tutu, 16. Zi-ukkina, 17. Ziku, 18. Agaku, 19. Shazu, 20. Zisi, 21. Suhrim, 22. Suhgurim, 23. Zahrim, 24. Zahgurim, 25. Enbilulu, 26. Epadun, 27. Gugal, 28. Hegal, 29. Sirsir, 30. Malah, 31. Gil, 32. Gilima, 33. Agilima, 34. Zulum, 35. Mummu, 36. Zulum-ummu, 37. Gizh- numun-ab, 38. Lugal-ab-dubur, 39. Pagal-guena, 40. Lugal-Durmah, 41. Aranuna, 42. Dumu-duku, 43. Lugal-duku, 44. Lugal-shuanna, 45. Iruga, 46. Irqingu, 47. Kinma, 48. Kinma, 49. E-sizkur, 50. Addu, 51. Asharu, 52. Neberu, 53. Enkukur. He becomes a firm lawgiver and judge who, when angered is not stoppable.
Later he becomes somewhat negligent and Erra challenges him by preparing to attack his people in Babylon. He responds to the challenge by saying that he already killed most of the people in the flood and would not do so again. He also states that no- one would be in control of things if he got off of his throne to work up a flood, to which Erra volunteers to run things from Marduk's throne.
Bel (Canaanite Baal)
Cleverest of the clever and sage of the gods, he is the child of Ea and Dumkina. This name (meaning 'lord') is most likely referring to Marduk.
Ashur (A-sir, Arusar, A-shar, Assur)
god of Assyria and war. He is a "King of the Igigi"
Symbol: winged disk enclosing upper body, while he shoots an arrow.
Shullat
- Shamash's servant.
Papsukkal
- vizier of the Great Gods, son of Sin. While Ishtar was in the Underworld, he became gloomy and informed Sin and Ea of this plight.
Hanish
- the weather god's servant.
Adad (the Canaanite Hadad, the Sumerian Ishkur, the Hurrian Teshub, the Canaanite/Egyptian Resheph, Rimmon)
a storm god, Anu's son. He holds a lightning bolt in his right hand and an axe in his left. He is partially responsible for the flood. He despairs and will not attack Anzu after Anzu has stolen the Tablet of Destinies from Ellil.
Sacred number: 6
Sacred animal: Bull
Shara
- Anu and Ishtar's son. He despairs and will not attack Anzu after Anzu has stolen the Tablet of Destinies from Ellil.
Nin-ildu
- the carpenter god. He carries the pure axe of the sun.
Gushkin-banda
- creator of god and man, goldsmith god.
Nin-agal
- 'lord strong-arm' patron god of smiths. He chews copper and makes tools.
C. The Anunnaki and other chthonic deities and demons
Ereshkigal (Allatu)
- the supreme goddess of the underworld. Nergal is her consort. She is often considered Ishtar's sister. When angered, her face grows livid and her lips grow black.
She doesn't know why Ishtar would visit her, but she allows her in, according to the ancient rites. She instructs Namtar to release his diseases upon Ishtar. When 'His appearance is bright' tries to get her to swear an oath, she curses him. She has Namtar release Ishtar in exchange for Dumuzi.
Anu sends Kakka to her with a message and then sends Nergal to give her a throne upon which she is to sit and give judgment. She offers Nergal food, drink, a foot bath, and entices him with her body. Eventually he succumbs and they sleep with each other for seven days. She is enraged when he wishes to leave. She sends Namtar to heaven to request that Anu, Ellil, and Ea send Nergal to her as one of the few favors she has ever had. If they do not, she will raise the dead and they will eat and outnumber the living. Nergal is brought back. In some versions of the myth, Nergal takes control of Namtar's attendant demons and grabs Ereshkigal by the hair. In this position she proposes marriage to him. In both versions they are married. (See also Sumerian Ereshkigal and the Hittite Lelwanis)
Belit-tseri
tablet-scribe of the underworld. She kneels before Ereshkigal.
Namtar(a)
- the Fate-Cutter, Ereshkigal's messenger and vizier, the herald of death. He commands sixty diseases, which are grouped by the part of the body which they affect. Offerings to him may stave off diseases. He takes Ishtar back out of the Underworld at Ereshkigal's command. He acts as her messenger to Anu.
Sumuqan
- the cattle god, he resides in the underworld, in Ereshkigal's court.
Nergal (Erragal, Erra, Engidudu
- 'lord who prowls by night') -, the Unsparing, god of the underworld, husband of Ereshkigal, lover of Mami. As Erra he is a hunter god, a god of war and plague. He is submissive to Ea. He can open the doorposts to the underworld to allow the passage of a soul.
He achieved his post by refusing to stand before an address of Namtar. When Ereshkigal called him to be punished, he dragged her off of her throne by the hair, and threatened to decapitate her. She offered him the position as her consort and he accepted.
He is an evil aspect of Shamash. He allows Enkidu's spirit to visit Gilgamesh at the behest of Ea. He is sometimes the son of Ea. Prior to his first journey to the underworld, he builds a chair of fine wood under Ea's instruction to give to Ereshkigal as a gift from Anu. He is advised not to take part of the food, drink and entertainment offered there. He is tempted by Ereshkigal and eventually succumbs, sleeping with her for seven days. He then takes his leave, angering her. The gatekeeper lets him out and he climbs the stairway to heaven. He hides from Namtar in heaven, but is discovered and returns to the underworld to marry Ereshkigal. In some versions, on the way back to the Underworld, he seizes control of Namtar's attendant demons and grabs Ereshkigal by the hair. In this position she offers marriage.
He commands the Sebitti, seven warriors who are also the Pleadies, they aid in his killing of noisy, over-populous people and animals. He rallies them when he feels the urge for war, and calls Ishum to light the way. They prefer to be used in war instead of waiting while Erra kills by disease.
He regards Marduk as having become negligent and prepares to attack his people in Babylon. He challenges Marduk in Esagila in Shuanna/Babylon. Marduk responds that he already killed most of the people in the flood and would not do so again. He also states that he could not run the flood without getting off of his throne and letting control slip. Erra volunteers to take his seat and control things. Marduk takes his vacation and Erra sets about trying to destroy Babylon. Ishum intervenes on Babylon's behalf and persuades Erra to stop, but not before he promises that the other gods will acknowledge themselves as Erra's servants. (See also Sumerian Nergal
Irra
- plague god, underling of Nergal
Enmesharra
- Underworld god
Lamashtu
- a dread female demon also known as 'she who erases'.
Nabu
- god of writing and wisdom
Nedu
- the guardian of the first gate of the underworld. (Dalley p. 175, "Nergal and Ereshkigal"). Also known as Neti to the Sumerians.
Ningizzia
- a guardian of the gate of heaven; a god of the underworld.
Tammuz (Dumuzi, Adonis)
the brother and spouse to Ishtar, or the lover of her youth. He is a vegetation god. He went into the underworld and was recovered through the intervention of Ishtar. He is sometimes the guardian of heaven's gates and sometimes a god of the underworld. He is friends with Ningizzia. He is exchanged for Ishtar in the Underworld. He guards the Gate of Anu with Gizzida.
Belili (Geshtinanna)
- Tammuz/Dumuzi's sister, 'the one who always weeps', the wife of Ningishzida.
Gizzida (Gishzida)
- son of Ninazu, consort of Belili, doorkeeper of Anu.
Nissaba (Nisaba)
- cereal grain harvest goddess. Her breast nourishes the fields. Her womb gives birth to the vegetation and grain. She has abundant locks of hair. She is also a goddess of writing and learned knowledge. She performs the purification ceremony on Ninurta after he has slain Anzu and is given his additional names and shrines.
Dagan (Ugaritic for 'grain')
- chthonic god of fertility and of the Underworld. He is paired with Anu as one who acknowledges directives and courses of action put forth in front of the assembly of the gods.
(See also the Canaanite Dagon)
Birdu
- (means 'pimple') an underworld god. Ellil used him as a messenger to Ninurta
Sharru
- god of submission
Urshambi
- boatman to Utnapishtim
Ennugi
- canal-controller of the Anunnaki.
Geshtu-e
- 'ear', god whose blood and intelligence are used by Mami to create man.
D. Demigods, heroes, and monsters:
Adapa (Uan)
- the first of the seven antediluvian sages who were sent by Ea to deliver the arts of civilization to mankind. He was from Eridu. He offered food an water to the gods in Eridu. He went out to catch fish for the temple of Ea and was caught in a storm. He broke the South Wind's wing and was called to be punished. Ea advised him to say that he behaved that way on account of Dumuzi's and Gizzida's absence from the country. Those gods, who tended Anu's gate, spoke in his favor to Anu. He was offered the bread and water of eternal life, but Ea advised against his taking it, lest he end his life on earth.
Atrahasis and Ut-napishtim,
Like the Sumerian Ziusudra (the Xisuthros of Berossus) or Noah from the Pentateuch, were the long-lived survivors of the great flood which wiped out the rest of humanity. In Atrahasis' case, Ellil had grown tired of the noise that the mass of humanity was making, and after a series of disasters failed to eliminate the problem, he had Enki release the floodgates to drown them out. Since Enki had a hand in creating man, he wanted to preserve his creation, warned Atrahasis, and had him build a boat, with which he weathered the flood. He also had kept his ear open to Enki during the previous disasters and had been able to listen to Enki's advice on how to avoid their full effects by making the appropriate offerings to the appropriate deities. He lived hundreds of years prior to the flood, while Utnapishtim lives forever after the flood.
Utnapishtim of Shuruppak was the son of Ubaratutu. His flood has no reason behind it save the stirrings of the hearts of the Gods. As with Atrahasis, Utnapishtim is warned to build an ark by Ea. He is also told to abandon riches and possessions and seek life and to tell the city elders that he is hated by Enlil and would go to the watery Abyss to live with Ea via the ark. He loads gold, silver, and the seed of all living creatures into the ark and all of his craftsmen's children as well. After Ea advises Enlil on better means to control the human population, (predators, famine, and plague), Enlil makes Utnapishtim and his wife immortal, like the gods.
Etana
- the human taken to the sky by an eagle. He was the king of Kish. Ishtar and the Igigi searched for a king for Kish. Ellil found a throne for Etana and they declared him the king. He was pious an continued to pray to Shamash, yet he had no son. Shamash told him to where to find the eagle with the cut wings, who would find for him the plant of birth. He found the eagle, fed it, and taught it to fly again. Not being able to find the plant, the eagle had Etana mount on his back and they journeyed to Ishtar, mistress of birth. On flying up to heaven, Etana grew scared at the height and went down. Then after some encouraging dreams tried to ascend to heaven on the eagle again. They succeeded. Etana had a son, Balih.
Lugalbanda
- a warrior-king and, with Ninsun, the progenitor of Gilgamesh. He is worshipped, being Gilgamesh's ancestor, by Gilgamesh as a god.
Gilgamesh (possibly Bilgamesh) and Enkidu
"Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet I"
The son of the warrior-king Lugalbanda and the wise goddess Ninsun, Gilgamesh built the walls of the city Uruk, and the Eanna (house of An) temple complex there, dedicated to Ishtar. He is two-thirds divine and one-third human. He is tall and a peerless warrior. He is the king and shepherd of the people of Uruk, but he was very wild, which upset his people, so they called out to Anu. Anu toldAruru to make a peer for Gilgamesh, so that they could fight and be kept occupied, so she created the wild-man Enkidu. Enkidu terrorizes the countryside, and a Stalker, advised by his father, informs Gilgamesh. They bring a love-priestess to bait Enkidu. She sleeps with him, and educates him about civilization, Gilgamesh and the city. Gilgamesh dreams about Enkidu and is anxious to meet him. Enkidu comes into the city Gilgamesh is on his way to deflower the brides in the city's "bride-house" and the two fight. They are evenly matched and become friends.
"Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablets II - V"
Gilgamesh decides to strengthen his reputation by taking on Humbaba, Enlil's guardian of the forest. Enkidu accompanies Gilgamesh and they spend much time in preparation. Eventually they find the monster and defeat him.
"Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablets VI - VIII"
Ishtar offers to become Gilgamesh's lover, but Gilgamesh insults her, saying that she has had many lovers and has not been faithful to them. Ishtar asks Anu to send the Bull of Heaven to punish Gilgamesh, and he does. Gilgamesh and Enkidu defeat the creature, but Enkidu falls ill and dies, presumably because the gods are unhappy that he helped kill Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven.
"Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablets IX - XI"
Gilgamesh mourns Enkidu and decides to visit Utnapishtim, the only human who does not die. He goes to the mountains of Mashu and passes by the guardian scorpion-demons into the darkness. It becomes light as he enters the Garden of the Gods and he finds Siduri the Barmaid, to whom he relates his quest. She sends him to cross the waters of death and he confronts the boatman, Urshanabi. They cross and Gilgamesh speaks with Utnapishtim. Utnapishtim recounts the tale of the flood and challenges Gilgamesh to remain awake for six days and seven nights. He fails, but Utnapishtim's wife urges him to reveal to Gilgamesh a rejuvinative plant. Gilgamesh takes it, but looses it to a serpent before returning to Uruk.
"Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablet XII"
Another tablet of the Babylonian Gilgamesh story exists, which is similar to the Sumerian version of the tale. Enkidu volunteers to enter the underworld to recover Gilgamesh's pukku and mikku (drum and throwing stick). Gilgamesh warns him of the proper etiquette for the underworld, lest Enkidu be kept there. Enkidu prepares to enter the underworld, and is dressed, scented and bade good-bye. The Earth seizes him and Gilgamesh weeps. He pleads for Enkidu's sake to Enlil, Sin, and finally to Ea. Ea tells Nergal to let Enkidu's ghost escape the underworld and tell Gilgamesh about it. He tells Gilgamesh of the dead which he has seen there, of those who are cared for and those who aren't, indicating the sort of judgment and ritual associated with the afterlife and death.
Humbaba (Huwawa)
- this monster was appointed by Ellil to guard the cedar forest, which is in fact one large tree, the home of the gods, and terrify mankind. 'His shout is the storm-flood, his mouth, fire, his breath is death.' (Gardner & Maier p. 105) He has seven cloaks with which to arm himself. There is a gate and a path in the cedar mountain for Humbaba to walk on. Gilgamesh and Enkidu attack. Humbaba pleads for mercy, Enkidu argues against mercy, and Enkidu and Gilgamesh decapitate him. See also the Sumerian Huwawa.
The Bull of Heaven
- this creature was created by Anu to kill Gilgamesh at Ishtar's behest. At its snorting, a hole opened up and 200 men fell into it. When it fights Enkidu and Gilgamesh, it throws spittle and excrement at them. It is killed and set as an offering to Shamash.
Anzu
- a demonic being with lion paws and face and eagle talons and wings. It was born on the mountain Hehe. Its beak is like a saw, its hide as eleven coats of mail. It was very powerful. Ellil appointed him to guard his bath chamber. He envied the Ellil-power inherent in Ellil's Tablet of Destinies and stole it while Ellil was bathing. With the Tablet of Destinies, anything he puts into words becomes reality. He takes advandtage of this by causing Ninurta's arrows to never reach their target. However, once Ea's advice reached Ninurta, Anzu was slain by the hero's onslaught.
aqrabuamelu (girtablilu)
- scorpion-man, the guardians of the gates of the underworld. Their "terror is awesome" and their "glance is death". They guard the passage of Shamash. They appraise Gilgamesh and speak with him.
Definitions:

Anunnaki
- gods (mostly of the earth). The sky Anunnaki set the Igigi to digging out the rivers
Igigi
- gods (mostly of the heavens) They are given the task of digging riverbeds by the Anunnaki. They rebelled against Ellil.
Sebitti
- the seven warrior gods led by Erra; in the sky they are the Pleadies. They were children of Anu and the Earth-mother. Anu gave them fearsome and lethal destinies and put them under Erra's command. They prefer to exercise there skills instead of letting Erra stay in the cities with his diseases.
Utukki - demons
Muttabriqu - Flashes of Lightning
Sarabda - Bailiff
Rabishu - Croucher
Tirid - Expulsion
Idiptu - Wind
Bennu - Fits
Sidana - Staggers
Miqit - Stroke
Bel Uri - Lord of the Roof
Umma - Feverhot
Libu - Scab
gallu-demons - can frequently alter their form.
umu-demons - fiercely bare their teeth.
IV. What about the Underworld and Heaven and all that?
For a more general discussion of this, take a look at the Underworld and Cosmology sections in the Sumerian FAQ, for the particulars, see below.
The Igigi and the Anunnaki met in heaven in Ubshu-ukkinakku, the divine assembly hall. The Gilgamesh epic has the gods dwelling in the cedar mountain. They had their parakku, throne-bases, there. It was an enormous tree at the cedar forest and was guarded by Humbaba. There is a stairway up to heaven from the underworld.
As for the underworld Kurnugi (Sumerian for 'land of no return'). It is presided over by Ereshkigal and Nergal. Within the house of Irkalla (Nergal), the house of darkness, the house of Ashes, no one ever exits. "They live on dust, their food is mud; their clothes are like birds' clothes, a garment of wings, and they see no light, living in blackness." It is full of dust and mighty kings serve others food. In Ereshkigal's court, heroes and priests reside, as well as Sumuqan and Belit-tseri. The scorpion-people guard the gates in the mountain to the underworld which Shamash uses to enter and exit. There are seven gates, through which one must pass. At each gate, an adornment or article of clothing must be removed. The gates (gatekeepers?) are named: Nedu, (En)kishar, Endashurimma, (E)nuralla, Endukuga/Nerubanda, Endushuba/Eundukuga, and Ennugigi. Beyond the gates are twelve double doors, wherein it is dark. Siduri waits there by the waters of death, beyond which, is the Land of the Living, where Utnapishtim and his wife dwell. Shamash and Utnapishtim's boatman, Urshanbi, can cross the waters. Egalginga, the everlasting palace, is a place where Ishtar was held.
V. Hey! I read that Cthulhu is really some Babylonian or Sumerian god, how come he's not there under Kutu?
I have yet to find any secondary (or for that matter primary) source which lists Kutu as a Mesopotamian deity, or for that matter lists any name resembling Cthulhu at all. However, having been given a pointer by DanNorder@aol.com, I have confirmed that Kutha or Cutch was the cult city of Nergal, the Akkadian god of plagues and the underworld (see above) and that 'lu' is the Sumerian word for man. So, Kuthalu would mean Kutha-man which could conceivably refer to Nergal. As far as I can tell it could mean Joe the Butcher or any of his neighbors who happen to live in Kutha just as easily. Nergal, of course bears little resemblance to Lovecraft's Cthulhu beyond the fact that both can be considered underworld powers. Those interested in further discussion about this might wish to contact Dan at the above address and they may wish to read alt.horror.cthulhu as well.
VI. So, in AD&D, Tiamat is this five-headed evil dragon, but they got her from the Enuma Elish, right? What about her counterpart, Bahamut?
Bahamut, according to Edgerton Sykes' Who's Who of Non-Classical Mythology, is "The enormous fish on which stands Kujara, the giant bull, whose back supports a rock of ruby, on the top of which stands an angel on whose shoulders rests the earth, according to Islamic myth. Our word Behemoth is of the same origin." (Sykes, p. 28)
[Note: Sykes's use of the phrase "Islamic myth" is misleading as this bit of cosmology is not considered Islamic doctrine. Bahamut is pre-Islamic, most likely Arabic. I don't have a second source for Kujara.]
Behemoth then, is usually the male counterpart to Leviathan, and is a great beast that roams on land. He is sometimes equated with a hippopotamus, and is alternately listed in the Old Testament as a creature on the side of God and as one over whom God has or will triumph over.
VII. I've heard there are Biblical parallels in Babylonian literature. What are they anyway?
Genesis: Creation of the universe
Ps:74:12-17 - YHWH vs. Leviathan; Marduk vs Tiamat. In the Enuma Elish, tablet IV, Marduk defeats the ocean goddess, Tiamat who is often depicted as a multi-headed dragon. He splits her apart, as YHWH splits apart the sea in Ps 74:13. He crushes her skull as YHWH crushes the skulls of the monster Leviathan in Ps 74:13-14. In tablet V, Marduk causes the crescent moon to appear, creates the seasons, the night and day, and creates springs from Tiamat's eyes, to form the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, as YHWH does in Ps 74:15-17 (Hooke p.106, Dalley pp.253-257)
Creation of humans.
Fall of man.
Adapa was the first "apkallu" (sage/priest), not the first man or first patriarch. He was given wisdom (knowledge of good and evil?) but not immortality. When in heaven (sent there for having broken the South Wind's wing), he is offered bread and water of eternal life. He refuses it, however having been tricked by Ea (in serpent role?) stating that he would be offered the bread and water of death instead. (Dalley pp. 182-188) In other references to the seven apkallu, he is the counsellor paired with the first anteluvian king on the Sumerian king lists (Dalley p. 328), Alulim - not Alulim himself, who was Adam's analog in patriarchal order.
Tower of Babel
As with the Sumerians, the most striking Biblical parallel within Akkadian myth is in the story of the flood. For the Babylonian account, see the entries on Atrahasis and Utnapishtim above.
Exodus - According to legend, Sargon was left in a basket in the Euphrates as an infant and "rose 'from an ark of bulrushes'" (Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia p. 101). His adoptive father was a "laborer in a palm garden who spotted the basket containing the remarkable child" (Crawford p. 42) Sargon was originally the cupbearer to a king (Ur-Zababa) before achieving leadership on his own. (Crawford p. 25)
Weeping for Tammuz and the month of Tammuz.
See also Biblical Parallels in Sumerian Mythology
VIII. Where did you get this info and where can I find out more?
Well this FAQ is primarily derived from the following works:
Barraclough, Geoffrey (ed.) The Times Consise Atlas of World History, Hammond Inc., Maplewood, New Jersey, 1982.
Dalley, Stephanie Myths from Mesopotamia, Oxford University Press, New York, 1991. This inexpensive volume served as the bible for much of this FAQ. It contains translations of the major Akkadian language myths with footnotes, brief introductions, and a glossary.
Gardner, John & Maier, John Gilgamesh: Translated from the Sin-Leqi-Unninni Version, Vintage Books, Random House, New York, 1984. A column by column translation with notes and commentary following each column, by the late author of Grendel.
Hooke, S. H., Babylonian and Assyrian Religion, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman Oklahoma, 1963.
Kinnier Wilson, J. V., The Rebel Lands : an Investigation Into the Origins of Early Mesopotamian Mythology, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1979.
McCall, Henrietta, Mesopotamian Myths University of Texas Press, Austin, 1990. A summary account of Dalley's book with nice pictures more cultural context.
Oppenheim, A. Leo, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization, Chicato, The University of Chicago Press, 1977. This is the source for the history and culture of the Babylonians and Assyrians for the interested lay-person.
The New American Bible, Catholic Book Publishing Co., New York, 1970.
In addition the following books have occasionally proven helpful:
Carlyon, Richard, A Guide to the Gods, Quill, William Morrow, New York, 1981.
Hooke, S. H. Middle Eastern Mythology, Penguin Books, New York, 1963. This work covers Sumerian, Babylonian, Canaanite/Ugaritic, Hittite, and Hebrew mythologic material in brief and with comparisons.
Jacobsen, Thorkild, The Treasures of Darkness, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1976. A good alternative to Kramer, Jacobsen explores Mesopotamian religious development from early Sumerian times through the Babylonian Enuma Elish. Most of the book winds up being on the Sumerians.
Pritchard, James B., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, with Suppliment, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1969.
Sykes, Edgerton, Who's Who in Non-Classical Mythology, Oxford University Press, New York, 1993.
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Canaanite/Ugaritic Mythology FAQ, ver. 1.2
by Christopher B. Siren
cbsiren at alum dot mit dot edu
based on John C. Gibson's Canaanite Mythology and S. H. Hooke's Middle Eastern Mythology
Last modified: May 25th 1998: Corrected several spelling errors.
May 25th 1996: Added an entry on Molech.
March 30th 1996: Fixed a couple of Lucian typos, added a biblical link.
March 11, 1996: added some links to Shawn Knight's "Egyptian Mythology FAQ"
February 12, 1996: Included more extra-Ugaritic information.
prior to February 12: added link to Gwen Saylor's commentary on this FAQ.
Contents:
I. Who do we mean by 'Canaanites'?
II. What Deities did they worship?
A. Primarily beneficent and non-hostile gods
B. Chaos gods, death gods, and cthonic gods.
C. Demigods and heroes.
III. What about their cosmology?
IV. Source material
V. Additional material of interest.
I. Who do we mean by 'Canaanites'?
Linguisticly, the ancient Semites have been broadly classified into Eastern and Western groups. The Eastern group is represented most prominently by Akkadian, the language of the Assyrians and Babylonians, who inhabited the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys. The Western group is further broken down into the Southern and Northern groups. The South Western Semites inhabited Arabia and Ethiopia while the North Western Semites occupied the Levant - the regions that used to be Palestine as well as what is now Syria, Israel and Lebanon, the regions often referred to in the Bible as Canaan.
Recent archaeological finds indicate that the inhabitants of the region themselves referred to the land as 'ca-na-na-um' as early as the mid-third millenium B.C.E. (Aubet p. 9) Variations on that name in reference to the country and its inhabitants continue through the first millenium B.C.E. The word appears to have two etymologies. On one end, represented by the Hebrew cana'ani the word meant merchant, an occupation for which the Canaanites were well known. On the other end, as represented by the Akkadian kinahhu, the word referred to the red-colored wool which was a key export of the region. When the Greeks encountered the Canaanites, it may have been this aspect of the term which they latched onto as they renamed the Canaanites the Phoenikes or Phoenicians, which may derive from a word meaning red or purple, and descriptive of the cloth for which the Greeks too traded. The Romans in turn transcribed the Greek phoinix to poenus, thus calling the descendants of the Canaanite emigres to Carthage 'Punic'. However, while both Phoenician and Canaanite refer to approximately the same culture, archaeologists and historians commonly refer to the pre-1200 or 1000 B.C.E. Levantines as Canaanites and their descendants, who left the bronze age for the iron, as Phoenicians.
It has been somewhat frustrating that so little outside of the Bible and less than a handful of secondary and tertiary Greek sources (Lucian of Samosata's De Syria Dea (The Syrian Goddess), fragments of thePhoenician History of Philo of Byblos, and the writings of Damasacius) remain to describe the beliefs of the people of the area. Unlike in Mesopotamia, papyrus was readily available so that most of the records simply deteriorated. A cross-roads of foreign empires, the region never truly had the chance to unify under a single native rule; thus scattered statues and conflicting listings of deities carved in shrines of the neighboring city-states of Gubla (Byblos), Siduna (Sidon), and Zaaru (Tyre) were all the primary sources known until the uncovering of the city of Ugarit in 1928 and the digs there in the late 1930's. The Canaanite myth cycle recovered from the city of Ugarit in what is now Ras Sharma, Syria dates back to at least 1400 B.C.E. in its written form, while the deity lists and statues from other cities, particularly Gubla date back as far as the third millenium B.C.E. Gubla, during that time, maintained a thriving trade with Egypt and was described as the capital during the third millenium B.C.E. Despite this title, like Siduna (Sidon), and Zaaru (Tyre), the city and the whole region was lorded over and colonized by the Egyptians. Between 2300 and 1900 B.C.E., many of the coastal Canaanite cities were abandoned, sacked by the Amorites, with the inland cities of Allepo and Mari lost to them completely. The second millenium B.C.E. saw a resurgence of Canaanite activity and trade, particularly noticable in Gubla and Ugarit. By the 14th century B.C.E., their trade extended from Egypt, to Mesopotamia and to Crete. All of this was under the patronage and dominance of the 18th dynasty of Egypt. Zaaru managed to maintain an independent kingdom, but the rest of the soon fell into unrest, while Egypt lost power and interest. In 1230, the Israelites began their invasion and during this time the possibly Achaean "Sea Peoples" raided much of the Eastern Mediterranean, working their way from Anatolia to Egypt. They led to the abandonment of Ugarit in 1200 B.C.E., and in 1180, a group of them established the country of Philistia, i.e. Palestine, along Canaan's southern coast.
Over the next three or four hundred years, the Canaanites gradually recovered. Now they occupied little more than a chain of cities along the coast, with rival city-states of Sidon and Tyre vying for control over larger sections of what the Greeks began to call Phoenicia. Tyre won out for a time and the unified state of Tyre-Sidon expanded its trade through the Mediterranean and was even able to establish colonies as far away as Spain. The most successful of these colonies was undoubtedly Carthage, said in the Tyrian annals to have been established in 814 B.C.E. by Pygmailion's sister Ellisa. She was named Dido, 'the wandering one', by the Lybian natives and escaped an unwelcome marriage to their king by immolating herself, a story which Virgil also recounts in the Aeneid. Her dramatic death brought about her deification while the colonists continued to practice the Canaanite religion, spreading it under Carthage's auspices while that state expanded during sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E. Carthage outlasted its patron state as Tyre and Sidon were crushed under Assyrian expansion beginning during the reign of Sennacherib around 724 B.C.E. and ending under Nebuchadnezar around 572 B.C.E.
The Phoenician era saw a shift in Canaanite religion. The larger pantheon became pushed to the wayside in favor of previously less important, singular deities who became or, in the case of Baalat, already were the patron city-gods, born witness to by ruling priest-kings.
II. What Deities did they worship?
As mentioned above, different cities had different concepts of not only which gods were ranked where in the pantheon, but also of which gods were included and what some of their basic attributes were. While El or Il, whose name means 'god', is commonly described as the creator of the earth, the Arameans ranked Hadad before him. Also, many city gods were named Baal, meaning 'lord'. Baal-Sidon, the city god of Sidon was thus an entirely different deity than Baal-Hadad, the storm god. Given the dearth of material from outside of Ugarit, if other cities or regions are not mentioned in the entry, the details can be assumed to be particular to Ugarit.
A. Primarily beneficent and non-hostile gods:
El - (also called Latipan, and possibly Dagon)
He is known as the Father of the gods, 'the father of mankind', the 'Bull', and 'the creator of creatures'. He is grey haired and bearded and lives at Mt. Lel. He is a heavy drinker and has gotten extremly drunk at his banquets.
As a young god, he went out to the sea and, spying two ladies, one of whom is presumably Athirat, becomes aroused, roasts a bird and asks the two to choose between being his daughters or his wives. They become his wives and in due course they give birth to Shachar, Shalim, and possibly other gracious gods, who could be Athirat's seventy children and/or much of the rest of the pantheon. The new family raises a sanctuary in the desert and lived there for eight years.
He orders that Yam be given kingship and sets Kothar-and-Khasis to build the new king a throne. The gods warn that Yam has been shamed and may wreck destruction, so El ameliorates him by renaming him mddil - 'beloved of El' and throws a feast for him. El warns though that this is contingent on his driving out of Baal, who may fight back. Following Yam's demise, he favors the god Mot.
While Baal is declared king and judge, he remains a resident of El and Athirat's palace as El refuses him permission to build an apropriate mansion, in spite of Shapash. When Baal-Hadad's monsters assail the handmaidens of Yarikh and Lady Athirat of the Sea, he advises them to give birth to beasts which will lure Baal-Hadad away on a hunt.
He favors King Keret, who may be his son, offering him riches upon the death of his many spouses and eventually promising him the princess Huray and many children, provided he make the proper sacrifices and follow his instructions. After Keret takes ill, El eventually convenes an assembly of the gods in order to ask one of them to rid Keret of his illness. Eventually, El dispatches the demoness Sha'taqat who cures Keret.
Anat brings her complaints of Aqhat before him and threatens to strike him in the head when he gives his response. He then replies that he knows how contemptuous she is and won't stand in her way.
Athirat (Asherah, Ashtartian - 'the Lady of the Sea', Elat - 'the goddess')
El's loving consort and is protective of her seventy children who may also be known as the gracious gods, to whom she is both mother and nursemaid. Her sons, unlike Baal initially, all have godly courts. She frequents the ocean shore. In the Syrian city of Qatra, she was considered Baal-Hadad's consort.
While washing clothing with a female companion by the sea, she is spied by El, who roasts a bird and invites the two to choose between being his daughters or his wives. They choose to become his wives and in due course give birth to the gracious gods, the cleavers of the sea, including Shachar and Shalim. The new family builds a sanctuary in the desert and lives there for eight years.
Baal and Anat hope to use her to influence El on the issue of Baal's palace. Intially suspicious and fearful of them on behalf of her children, but she warms up when she see that they have brought gifts. She and Anat successfully intercede with El on Baal's behalf for permission for Baal to build a more suitable court.
When Baal is found dead, she advocates her son Athtar be made king. Her sons, the "'pounders' of the sea", apparently colluded with Mot and were smited by Baal with sword and mace upon his return. Baal-Hadad's creatures devour her handmaidens, so she sends them to El. El tells them to go into the wilderness and there birth horned buffalo, which will distract Baal-Hadad.
She and Anat serve as nursemaids for Keret's son Yassib, but reminds Keret of his pledge of wealth for Huray, perhaps causing his decline in health because of its lack of fulfillment. (See also Gwen Saylor's commentary on ver. 0.3 - Asherah)
Qadshu
A Syrian goddess, who has occasionally been tentatively identified with nude fertility goddess statues. Also spelled Qodesh, meaning 'holy', and used as an epithet of Athirat. She had been identified with the Egyptian Qetesh
Qodesh-and-Amrur 'fisherman of Athirat'
Baal's messenger to Kothar-and-Khasis. He is also Athirat's servant and dredges up provisions to entertain her guests from the sea with a net. It is interesting to note that in Dan 4:13(10) similar words appear to refer to an angel and have been translated as 'holy messenger' or 'holy sentinel'.
Kothar-and-Khasis ('skillful and clever', also called Chousor and Heyan (Ea) and identified with Ptah)
He is the craftsman god and is identified with Memphis.
He is ordered by El to build Yam's throne. He upbraids Yam for rising against Baal and threatens him with a magic weapon. He gives Baal the magic weapons Yagrush (Chaser) and Aymur (Driver).
He crafts Baal's bribe for Athirat, a temple serving set of gold and silver. He build's Baal's second house and insists over Baal's objections on including a window.
He constructs a bow and arrows set for Aqhat, presenting them first to Daniel and staying for a feast.
Shachar 'Dawn'
Shalim's twin twin and one of the first, if not only, pair of gracious gods, the children and cleavers of the sea. They were born of El and Athirat or her female companion. The new family builds a sanctuary in the desert and lives there for eight years. According to Isaiah 14:12, he is the father of Helel or Lucifer, the 'light-bringer', usually taken to mean the morning-star.
Shalim 'Sunset/Dusk'
Shachar's twin and one of the first, if not only, pair of gracious gods, the children and cleavers of the sea. They were born of El and Athirat or her female companion. The new family builds a sanctuary in the desert and lives there for eight years.
Shamu (Baalshamem?)
Not found in the Ugarit texts, this sky god was the chief of the pantheon at the Syrian city of Alalakh.
Baal (also called Baal-Zephon(Saphon), Hadad, Pidar and Rapiu (Rapha?) - 'the shade')
The son of El, the god of fertility, 'rider of the clouds', and god of lightning and thunder. He is 'the Prince, the lord of earth', 'the mightiest of warriors', 'lord of the sky and the earth' (Alalakh). He has a palace on Mt. Zephon. He has a feud with Yam. His voice is thunder, his ship is a snow bearing cloud. He is known as Rapiu during his summer stay in the underworld.
He upbraids the gods for their cowardice when they intend to hand him over to Yam's messengers and attacks them but is restrained by Athtart and Anat. Kothar-and-Khasis gives him the magic weapons Yagrush (Chaser) and Aymur (Driver). He strikes Yam in chest and in the forehead, knocking him out. Athtart rebukes Baal and calls on him to 'scatter' his captive, which he does. In a alternate version of this episode, he slays Lotan (Leviathan), the seven-headed dragon. The battle may have been representative of rough winter sea-storms which calmed in the spring and which were preceded and accompanied by autumn rains which ended summer droughts and enabled crops to grow.
After his victory he holds a feast and remarks on his lack of a proper palace, instead retaining residence with El and Athirat. He sends messengers to Anat to ask her to perform a peace-offering that he might tell her the word which is the power of lightning and seek lightning on the holy Mt Zephon. She does so and he welcomes her. Hearing his complaints Anat leaves to petition El for a new palace for Baal. Rejected, Baal dispatches Qodesh-and-Amrur to Kothar-and-Khasis with a request to make a silver temple set with which to bribe Athirat. He and Anat view Athirat with trepidation keeping in mind past insults which he has suffered at the hands of the other gods. He and Anat ask Athirat to ask El for permission to build a more extravagant house and Athirat's request is granted. Gathering cedar, gold, silver, gems, and lapis at Mt. Zephon, he calls Kothar-and-Khasis, feeding him and instructing him on how to build the palace. He doesn't want a window, for fear of Yam breaking through or his daughters escaping, but Kothar-and-Khasis convinces him to allow its inclusion so that he might lightning, thunder, and rain through it.
At its completion he holds a feast, takes over scores of towns and allows the window to be built. He threatens to ask Mot to invite any of Baal's remaining enemies to come for a visit and at night, binds the lightning, snow and rains. He sends Gupn and Ugar to Mot to invite him to acknowledge his sovereignty at his new palace. He sends messengers to Mot to carry this message to him and they return with a message of such weight that Baal declares himself Mot's slave. He hopes to ameliorate Mot by having Sheger and Ithm supply live sheep and cattle for the god to feast upon. Fearing Mot he seeks Shapshu's advice and sires a substitute on a cow. He (or possibly his substitute) dies and remains in the underworld for seven years. El dreams that he is alive again but he is absent. Ashtar attempts to take Baal's place, but can not. Shapshu searches for him. Baal returns and fights Mot's allies, the sons of Athirat and the yellow ones. After seven years, Mot returns, demanding one of Baal's brothers lest he consume mankind. Baal rebuffs him and they fight tooth and nail. Shapshu separates the two declaring that Baal has El's favor and Baal resumes his throne.
As Baal-Hadad, he sends monstrous creatures to attack the handmaidens of Yarikh, and of Athirat of the Sea. He hunts the horned, buffalo-humped creatures which were birthed by the handmaidens at the advice of El. During the hunt he is stuck in a bog for seven years and things fall to pot. His kin recover him and there is much rejoicing.
Once when he was out hunting, Anat followed him. He spotted her, fell in love and copulated with her in the form of a cow. She gave birth to 'a wild ox' or a 'buffalo', telling him of the event on Mt. Zephon. This is probably not their only affair. (See also Theology 100 Online Glossary - Baal, Encyclopedia Mystica - Baal)
Gapn (vine)
Baal's page and messenger to both Anat and Mot.
Radmanu (Pradmanu)
a minor servitor of Baal.
Ugar (cultivated field?)
Baal's other page and messenger to both Anat and Mot. He is possibly the patron city-god of Ugarit.
Pidray 'daughter of the mist','daughter of light(ning)'
Baal's daughter. She is sometimes a love interest of Athtar.
Tallay ='she of dew', 'daughter of drizzle'
Baal's daughter.
Arsay = 'she of the earth', 'daughter of [ample flows]'
Baal's daughter.
Ybrdmy
Baal's daughter.
Athtart (Athtart-name-of-Baal, Astarte, Ashtoreth, Ashtart)
She is a consort of Baal, and lesser goddess of war and the chase. Outside of Ugarit, many nude goddess statues have been tenuously identified with her as a goddess of fertility and sex. In Sidon she merited royal priests and priestesses. There she served as a goddess of fertility, love, war and sexual vitality and to that end had sacred prostitutes. She was the Phoenecian great goddess and was identified with Aphrodite by the Greeks.
She restrains Baal when he intends to attack Yam's messengers. She rerebukes Baal for holding Yam captive and calls on him to 'scatter' Yam, which he does.
Apparently she, along with Anat, is willing to become Baal's cupbearer once he achieves a proper palace. (See also Theology 100 Online Glossary - Astarte
Anat (Anath, Rahmay - 'the merciful')
She Baal's sister and the daughter of El. Goddess of war, the hunt, and savagery. She is an archer. Virgin, sister-in-law (progenitor?) of peoples (Li'mites'?). She and Athirat are nursemaids to the gracious gods.
She restrains Baal when he intends to attack Yam's messengers. In missing texts, she killed Yam-Nahar, the dragon, the seven-headed serpent. She also destroyed Arsh, Atik, Ishat, and Zabib, all enemies of Baal.
She holds a feast at Baal's palace to celebrate his victory over Yam. After the guests arrive, she departs her abode and adorns herself in rouge and henna, closes the doors and slaughters the inhabitant of two nearby towns, possibly Baal's enemies. She makes a belt of their heads and hands and wades through the blood. She lures the towns' warriors inside to sit and joyfully massacres them. She then makes a ritual peace offering and cleans up. This is possibly related to a seasonal fertility ritual welcoming the autumn rains. Anat receives messengers from Baal thinking that some new foe has arisen, but they assure her that he only wishes that she make a peace offering that he might tell her the secret of lightning and seek it on Mt. Zephon. She does so, demanding first to see the lightning, and is welcomed by Baal from afar. Hearing him complain of lack of a proper mansion, she storms off to El, creating tremors. She threatens to mangle his face lest he heed her and have Baal's court constructed, yet her plea is rejected. She is assisted in her petition, possibly by Athtart. She accompanies Baal to Athirat with a bribe and assists Athirat in her successful petition to El for Baal's court.
After Baal dies, she searches for him and, finding his body goes into a violent fit of mourning. She has Shapash take his body to Mt. Zephon, where she buries it and holds a feast in his honor. After seven years of drought, she finds Mot, and cuts, winnows, and sows him like corn.
She attends the feast where Daniel presents Aqhat with a bow and arrows set made by Kothar-and-Khasis. Desiring the bow, she offers Aqhat riches and immortality, for it. He refuses and so she promises vengeance upon him should he transgress and leaves for Mt. Lel to denounce him to El. Upset with El's response, she threatens to strike his head, sarcasticly suggesting that Aqhat might save him. El remarks that he won't hinder her revenge, so she finds Aqhat, and taking the form of a kinswoman, lures him off to Qart-Abilim. Unsuccessful with her first attempt there, she calls her attendant warrior Yatpan to take the form of an eagle, and with a flock of similar birds pray strike Aqhat as he sits on the mountain. They do so and Aqhat is slain, unfortunately, the bow falls into the waters and is lost and Anat laments that her actions and Aqhat's death were in vain.
When Baal was out hunting, she followed after him and copulated with him in the form of a cow. She gave birth to 'a wild ox' or a 'buffalo', visiting Mt. Zephon to tell Baal of the good news. This is probably not their only affair.
Baalat
The 'mistress' of Gubla she was not found in Ugarit. This great fertility goddess was the foremost deity of that city. She served as protector of the city and of the royal dynasty. She was associated with Baal-Shamen and she assimilated the characteristics of the Egyptian goddesses Hathor and Ast (Isis).
Tanit
Known as the 'lady of Carthage' and the 'face of Baal', Tanit was the great goddess of the Carthaginians and, with Baal Hammon co-protector of that city. She is listed first of all deities in Carthage.
Shapshu (Shapash)
She is the sun-goddess (Akkadian Shamash, a male deity) and is known as the torch of the gods and pale Shapshu. She often acts as messenger or representative on El's behalf. She has some dominion over the shades and ghosts of the nether-world. Kothar-and-Khasis may be her companion and protector.
She tells Athtar that he will loose kingship to Yam under El's auspice and rebuffs his complaints by recalling his lack of wife and children.
She is said to be under Mot's influence when Baal is preoccupied with his lack of a palace and not raining. The weather then is particularly hot.
When Mot's messenger seeks Baal, she advises the thunder-god to procure a substitute, to satisfy Mot and then take his servants and daughters and venture into the underworld. At the direction ofAnat, she carries Baal's body back to Mt. Zephon. She is told by El that he dreamed Baal was alive and she searches for him. When Baal returns and fights with Mot, she separates them, declaring that Baal has El's favor.
Yarikh
He is the moon god. 'The illuminator of myriads (of stars)', 'lamp of heaven', possibly also the crescent moon and 'lord of the sickle' and thereby the father of the Kotharat. He is patron of the city Qart-Abilim.
After sunset he embraces Nikkal-and-Ib and becomes determined to marry her. He seeks Khirkhib out to arbitrate the brideprice, but instead Khirkhib tries suggests other potential mates in the daughters of Baal. Undaunted, Yarikh presents a lavish brideprice to Nikkal-and-Ib's family and the two are wed.
Baal-Hadad's creatures devour his handmaidens, so he sends them to El. El tells them to go into the wilderness and there birth horned buffalo, which will distract Baal-Hadad.
Kotharat (was thought to be Kathirat) 'skillful'
They are a group of goddesses associated with conception and childbirth. '...The swallow-like daughters of the crescent moon.' (Gibson p. 106). They are also associated with the new moon. They attend Daniel for seven days to aid in the conception of Aqhat and receive his sacrifice.
Athtar (Ashtar, 'Athtar, Atra of the sky) 'the terrible'
He is a son of Athirat, possibly a god of the desert or of artificial irrigation. He is sometimes a suitor of Pidray. As the great god of the Sabeans and Himyar (both South Arabian states), he was identified with Venus and was sired by the moon on the sun. He looses his kingship to Yam at the behest of El and is warned off from an attack on Yam by Shapshu. He complains to her of his lack of status, palace and court.
He attempts to take Baal's place at his throne while Baal is dead, but he is too small for the seat and rejects it, becoming king of the earth instead.
Sheger ('offspring of cattle')
He is the god of cattle
Ithm
He is the god of sheep
Hirgab
He is the father of the eagles.
S,umul
She is the mother of the eagles. She ate the body of Aqhat.
Elsh
He is the steward (carpenter?) of El and of Baal's house. His wife is the stewardess (carpenter?) of the goddesses.
Sha'taqat 'drives away'
She is the flying demoness who drives away Keret's disease on behalf of El with a touch of her wand to his head.
'god(s) of the fathers'
They are ancestral or clan deities, commonly associated with one family or another, outside of the main pantheon.
Nikkal-and-Ib 'great lady and clear/bright/fruit' or 'Great goddess of fruit' (Ningal)
She is possibly the daughter of Dagon of Tuttul, or else of Khirkhib. She is romanced by Yarikh and marries him after Yarikh arranges a brideprice with Khirkhib and pays it to her parents.
Khirkhib (was thought to be Hiribi), king of summer, king of the raiding season (autumn)
He is probably a Hurrian deity. He acts as a matchmaker between Yarikh and Nikkal-and-Ib, initially trying to dissuade Yarikh from pursuing her suggesting Pidray and Ybrdmy as alternative choices.
Dagon of Tuttul
He is a Syrian version of Dagon, and the probable father of Nikkal-and-Ib. Ugarit's Dagon was the father of Baal and may have been identified with El. There were also temples to Dagon in Mari and Emar. To the Phoenicians, he was a god of wheat and the inventor of the plow. The Philistines adopted him as their own and depicted him with the upper torso of a man and the back half of a fish. (See also the Assyro-Babylonian Dagan and the Hittite Kumarbi)
Baal-Shamen (Baal-Shamain) 'lord of the skies'
Lord of the Assembly of the gods at Gubla. He was the great god of the Aramaean kingdoms of Hama and Laash and the protector of their rulers.
Milqart (Melqart, Baal Tsur, Milkashtart?) - 'king of the city', the hunter, 'fire of heaven'.
Patron god of Tyre, he was the god of the Metropolis and of the monarchy at Tyre and Carthage. His cult spread throughout the Mediterranean region, but has not been found at second millenium sites. As with the Babylonian Nergal/Erra, he has been identified with Heracles archetypes. Greek sources imply that he was a dying and rising vegetation god, and that he was associated with the sacred marriage like the Sumerian god, Dumuzi. He was ritually immolated in an annual festival. He was also a god of the sea and was pictured mounted on a hippocampus.
Eshmun 'the holy prince'
He was a god of healing and the great god in Sidon. He was known in Tyre, Cyprus, and Carthage, but not in Ugarit. In the 5th century AD, Damascius identified him with the Greek god Asclepius.
B. Chaos gods, death gods and baneful gods.
Yam (Nahar, Yaw, Lotan?, Leviathan?)
He is god of sea and rivers, he dwells in a palace under the sea. He carries a feud with Baal. He may have had in his following a dragon (tnn) which lives in the sea, a serpent (btn), and/or Lotan/Leviathan, or may have been all of those creatures.
He is given kingship by El. He threatens vast destruction until El names him 'beloved of El' and sends him on his way to oust Baal. Upbraided by Kothar-and-Khasis, he dispatches messengers to El to demand the delivery of Baal. Baal strikes him with Yagrush and Chaser in the chest and forehead, knocking him down. He is slain and scattered at the urging of Athtart. The battle may have been representative of rough winter sea-storms which calmed in the spring and which were preceded and accompanied by autumn rains which ended summer droughts and enabled crops to grow.
Arsh
The 'darling of the gods', a monstrous attendant of Yam, slain by Anat. Arsh lives in the sea.
Atik
The 'calf of El', an enemy of Baal. Slain by Anat.
Ishat (fire)
The 'bitch of the gods', an enemy of Baal, slain by Anat.
Zabib (flame? flies?)
The daughter of El, an enemy of Baal, slain by Anat.
Mot(-and-Shar) 'Death and Prince/Dissolution/Evil'
'the beloved one'- Mot is the god of sterility, death, and the underworld. In one hand he holds the scepter of bereavement, and in the other the scepter of widowhood. His jaws and throat are described in cosmic proportions and serve as a euphemism for death.
When he has influence over Shapshu, it is unusually hot and dry. He sits on a pit for a throne in the city of Miry in the underworld.
Prior to the conception of the gracious gods, he is pruned and felled like a vine by the vine dressers.
He is favored by El following Baal's defeat of Yam and Baal refuses him tribute. When Baal's messengers deliver him an invitation to feast at Baal's new palace, he is insulted that he is offered bread and wine and not the flesh he hungers for. In fact, he threatens to defeat Baal as Baal did Leviathan, causing the sky to wilt and then eat Baal himself. Baal would then visit his palace in the underworld. He is pleased that Baal submits to him. Baal goes to the underworld and either he or his substitute is eaten by Mot. Presumably the sons of Athirat had some part in his death. After seven years of famine,Anat seizes Mot, splits, winnows, sows and grinds him like corn. Baal eventually returns and defeats Mot's allies. After seven years Mot returns and demands Baal's brother, lest he wipe out humanity. Baal rebuffs him and the two have a mighty battle, but are separated by Shapshu who declares Baal to have El's favor.
'The yellow ones of Mot'
Mot's henchmen who are slain by Baal upon his return.
Horon
He is probably a cthonic deity.
Resheph
'prince Resheph' is the god of pestilence.
aklm - 'the devourers'
These are some creatures who fought Baal-Hadad in the desert, they remind some of grasshoppers.
Rephaim (Rpum) - 'shades'
These are deities of the underworld whom Daniel meets in his journey there. They may have been involved in negotiations with him for the return of his son Aqhat. Eight of them led by Repu-Baal (Rapiu? Baal?) arrive at a feast given by El in chariots, on horseback, and on wild asses.
Molech (Melech, Malik, Milcom?, Milqart?)
Not explicitly found in the Ugarit texts, Molech is a bit of an enigma. He shows up in the Old Testament in Leviticus 18 and 20, 1 Kings 11, 2 Kings 23, and Jeremiah 32. From that he appears to be a god of the Ammonites - a region west of the Jordon - whose worshipers sacrificed children in fires at temples, some of which were in the Valley of Hinnom, i.e. Gehenna, just south of Jerusalem. The Old Testament also names the similarly spelt "Milcom" as a god of the Ammonites leading to the suspicion that they are the same god. Molech is probably not the original name of the deity. There has been a good deal of argument as to whether Molech could be identified with another foreign deity and which deity that would be, or whether molech was simply a term which referred to child sacrifice of any sort. The Canaanite gods Mot and Milqart of Tyre, and the Mesopotamian god Nergal, whom I believe is somewhere referred to as Malik=king, are a couple of the prime candidates for being Molech. For some online commentary on this check out Gwen Saylor's correspondence. For more in depth off-line discussion see:
Day, John, Molech:A God of Human Sacrifice in the Old Testament, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1989.
C. Demi-gods and Heroes
Keret
Keret was a king (of Khubur?) and possibly the son of El (this may be an expression for a fortunate person) who lost his estate and his successive eight wives to death, disease, and accident before any one of them could produce an heir. Having fallen asleep in tears, he is visited by El in a dream and offered kingship and riches to assuage his sorrow. This is ineffective as Keret only desires sons and heirs. El directs him to make an animal and wine sacrifice to El and Baal on the tower and then muster an army to lay siege to the city of Udm. There, Keret is to refuse offers from the Udm's king Pabil and demand his daughter, the fair Huray. Keret does as instructed, vowing to himself to give Huray an enormous sum of wealth upon his success.
Returning to his estate with Huray, Keret is blessed by El at Baal's behest and is promised eight sons, the first of which, Yassib, shall have Athirat and Anat as nursemaids. In addition, Huray will bear eight daughters all of whom as blessed as a first-born child. Athirat calls attention to Keret's promise of wealth to Huray which he has yet to fulfill.
Later, Keret and Huray prepare a great feast for the lords of Khubur. Later still Keret has become deathly ill and Huray entreats guests at a feast to morn for him and make sacrifices on his behalf.
The household is tense and Keret's son Elhu, despondently visits his father. Keret tells him not to sorrow, but to send for his sympathetic sister, Keret's daughter Thitmanat ('the eighth one'). Her sympathy, heighted Keret expects from her surprise at his state will evoke the attention of the gods during a sacrifice he intends to perform. Indeed she weeps readily when the truth is revealed. Meanwhile, the rains have ceased with Keret's illness, but return after a ceremony on Mt. Zephon. El convenes an assembly of the gods and dispatches the demoness Sha'taqat who cures Keret. Keret's son and heir Yassib, unaware of his father's cure entreats him to surrender his throne as he has been remiss in his duties, but Yassib is rebuffed and cursed.
Daniel
'He of Harnan', a devotee of Rapiu (Baal) and a patriarchal king. Like Keret, Daniel is in mourning because unlike his brothers he had no sons. So, for several days he sacrificed food and drink to the gods. On the seventh day, Baal takes notice and successfully petitions El to allow Daniel and his wife, Danatay, to have a child, citing, among other reasons, that the child will be able to continue the contributions and sacrifices to their temples. El informs Daniel of his impending change of fortune. He rejoices and slaughters an ox for the Kotharat, pouring sacrifices to them for six days and watching them depart on the seventh. During some missing columns, Danatay gives birth to Aqhat. Later, Kothar-and-Khasis arrives with a specially crafted bow and arrows set for Aqhat. Daniel and Danatay hold a feast, inviting the god, and Daniel presents Aqhat with the bow reminding him to sacrifice the choices game to the gods. When Aqhat is slain, Daniel's daughter Pughat notices the eagles and the drought and becomes upset. Daniel prays that Baal might return the rains and travels among the fields coaxing the few living plants to grow and wishing that Aqhat were there to help harvest them. Pughat informs him of Aqhat's demise. Daniel then swears vengeance upon his son's slayer. In succession he spies some eagles, Hirgab, and Sumul. He calls upon Baal to break their wings and breast-bones, then he searches their insides for Aqhat's remains. Initially not finding them, he asks Baal to restore the eagles and Hirgab. Finding Aqhat's remains within Sumul, he buries him and calls upon Baal to break the bones of any eagle that my disturb them and curses the lands near which his son was slain. His court goes into mourning for seven years, at which time Daniel dismisses the mourners and burns incense in sacrifice to the gods. Pughat prays to the gods to bless her in her venture and disguises herself as Anat, intending to wreck vengeance upon those who slew Aqhat.
Aqhat
The much anticipated child of Daniel and Danatay, Aqhat is presented with a bow and arrows set made by Kothar-and-Khasis early in his life by his father at a feast. Daniel reminds him to take the best of his kills to the temple for the gods. At the feast Anat offers Aqhat riches and eternal life if he would give her the bow. When he refuses, she promises to deliver vengeance upon him should he ever transgress. Presumably he fails to offer his best kills to the gods. Later he follows a disguised Anat to Qart-Abilim but presumably thwarts her new scheme to acquire his bow and lives there for a time, possibly under the favor of Yarikh. He is left on a mountain and while sitting for a meal is attacked by Anat's attendant Yatpan in the form of an eagle, along with other birds of prey, and is slain. Following his death, the land is poisoned and there is a period of famine and drought. Daniel recovers his son's remains from the eagle S,umul.
Later, Daniel visits the underworld, probably in hopes of recovering Aqhat, and there encounters the Rephaim.
Pughat
She is one of Daniel and Danatay's daughters. When Aqhat is slain, She notices the eagles and the drought and becomes upset. Daniel prays that Baal might return the rains and travels among the fields coaxing the few living plants to grow and wishing that Aqhat were there to help harvest them. Pughat encounters Aqhat's servants and learns of his demise. After seven years of Daniel's court mourning, Daniel dismisses the mourners and burns incense in sacrifice to the gods. Pughat prays to the gods to bless her in her venture and disguises herself as Anat, intending to wreck vengeance upon those who slew Aqhat. She arrives and meets Yatpan, accepting his wine, and the rest is missing.
Men in general
from a side note (Gibson p. 68) men are considered made of 'clay'.
III. What about their cosmology? (Divine geography)
Little is certain about the cosmology of the Canaanites. While the Ugaritic texts tell us of El, Athirat, and Rahmay's creation of the gracious gods, for the creation of the universe we must rely on the Greek sources of Philo of Byblos, Athenaeus, and Damascius, which are thoroughly drenched in Greek cosmology. In general they relate that from gods like chaos, ether, air, wind and desire was produced the egg Mot, which was probably not the same Mot as found in Ugarit. The egg was populated with creatures who remained motionless until it was opened, whence the sky and heavenly bodies were formed. Later the waters were separated from the sky, and gods of El's generation were formed. Additional hints about the divine geography gathered from the Ugarit texts are included below:
Mt. Lel
Where the assembly of the gods meet. It is El's abode and the source of the rivers and two oceans, as well as where those waters meet those of the firmament. It lies 'two layers beneath the wells of the earth, three spans beneath its marshes.' It had been thought to be a field and not a mountain. The mansion there has eight entrances and seven chambers.
hmry 'Miry'
Mot's city in the underworld, "where a pit is the throne on which he sits, filth the land of his heritage." (Gibson p. 66)
the underworld
'the place of freedom'. The Aramaeans believed that the souls of the blessed dead ate with Baal-Hadad.
Targhizizi and Tharumagi
These are the twin mountains which hold the firmament up above the earth-circling ocean, thereby bounding the earth. The entrance to the underworld and Shapshu's 'grave'. It is entered by lifting up a rock to a wooded height. The entrance is bounded by a river-shore land of pasture and fields known ironicly as "Pleasure" or "Delight".
Ughar or Inbab
This is the location of Anat's mansion.
Mt. Zephon
Either the mountain is deified and holy, godlike in proportion, or El has a pavilion there. It has recesses within which Baal holds his feast. Baal had his first house of cedar and brick there, as well as his second house of gold, silver, and lapis-lazuli.
IV. Source material:
Aubet, Maria E., The Phoenicians and the West, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1987, 1993.
S. H. Hooke Middle Eastern Mythology , Penguin Books, New York, 1963.
John C. L. Gibson Canaanite Myths and Legends, T & T Clark Ltd., Edinburgh, 1977.
Moscoty, Sabatino, The World of the Phoenicians, Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers, New York, 1968.
Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, ed. James Pritchard, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1955.
Szneycer, Maurice articles in Mythologies Volume One compiled by Bonnefoy, Yves, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991.
Sykes, Edgerton Who's Who in Non-Classical Mythology, Oxford University Press, New York, 1993.
V. Additional material of interest.
I've been corresponding with Gwen Saylor about this FAQ and other matters and she has been kind enough to allow me to reproduce her commentary on version 0.3. The first section of the e-letter is part of our discussion about Helel, and the commentary on this FAQ begins with the line "Second Topic -- Phoenician FAQ --".
M. Coogan Stories From Ancient Canaan
Day, John, Molech:A God of Human Sacrifice in the Old Testament, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1989.
C.H. Gordon Ugaritic Literature, Rome, 1949.
Hall, H. R., The Ancient History of the Near East, Methuan & Co. Ltd, London, 1950.
The Ancient Near East: Supplementary Texts and Pictures Relating to the Old Testament, ed. James Pritchard, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1969.
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Visit the Hittite Mythology REF?
Hittite/Hurrian Mythology REF 1.2
by Christopher B. Siren
cbsiren at alum dot mit dot edu
last modified Mar. 13th, 1998: added a bunch of information from the first half of Hoffner.
Mar. 29th, 1996: corrected some cross-reference links.

I. Who were the 'Hittites'?
II. What Deities did they worship?
A. Hittite and Hurrian deities.
B. Akkadian Imports.
C. Demons.
D. Mortals.
III. What was the Hittite cosmology and how did they perceive the structure of the universe?
IV. Source material.
I. Who were the 'Hittites'?
During the second millennium B.C. a group of people known as the Hittites, who spoke an Indo-European language, ruled over the 'Land of Hatti', in central and eastern Anatolia, that peninsula which is modern Turkey. They had displaced the previous occupants, the Hattians (who spoke a non-Indo-European language), and ruled from the city of Hattusas near the modern Boghazkoy in northern central Turkey, possibly as early as 1900 B.C. Much of the Cappadocian plateau was under their control through satellite kingdoms before 1800 B.C. and they enjoyed a thriving trade with the Assyrians. Around 1800 B.C. Anittas and his father Pitkhanas of Kussara sacked several Hittite cities, including Hattusas, though Anittas laid a curse upon that city and trade broke off until the founding of the Old Kingdom under King Labarnas around 1680 B.C. He and his descendents greatly expanded the region of Hittite control, crossing the Taurus mountains and waging war on Syria and Assyria. King Mursilis (~1620-1590 B.C.), Labarnas' grandson by adoption, brought down the Old Kingdom of Babylon - Hamurabi's dynasty. This expanded realm, also stretching to Anatolia's west coast, proved to susceptible to internal power struggles. In 1525 B.C., Telepinus, last king of the Old Kingdom seized control and sacrificed some of the Western districts and all of the territory east of the Taurus mountains in favor of a more easily managed kingdom.
The Hurrians occupied the land between the Hittites and Assyria, having descended from the mountains south of the Caspian Sea. They ruled the kingdom of Mitanni. In the late 15th century B.C. the Hittite empire's beginning is marked by an influx of Hurrian names into the royal family. Tudhalyas I (1420 B.C.) reunited Western Anatolia under Hittite rule, and retook Allepo but lost the Black Sea coast to the Kaska tribes. After some difficulty with the Mittani the Hittites resurged under King Suppilulimas around 1344-1322 taking a firmer hold on Syria. With Egypt, they dominated the lands of Canaan and the Levant during the 1200's. Their prosperity came to a sudden end when the invasion of the Sea Peoples coincided with increasing trouble from the Kaskas. While Hittite culture continued through about 700 B.C., the Empire was shattered into several kingdoms and pressures such as the growing Assyrian Empire helped keep it from uniting again.
The Hittites were a patriarchal, highly agricultural society. They had rich iron deposits which they mined and traded with the Assyrians. They also used it for weaponry and were rather successful in the use of a three-man chariot. Through trade and conquest the languages and cultures of their neighbors seeped into Hittite society. Babylonian and Hurrian deities were worshiped along-side or assimilated with the native Hittite deities. This merging of cultures and free use of foreign languages is rather fortuitous. Parallel Hittite and Akkadian treaties and similar texts helped in cracking the Hittite hieroglyphic code. Unfortunately, while the ability to translate Hittite hieroglyphics has improved, the pronunciation of several Hittite ideograms, and hence their transcription into English, remains elusive. Often, as in the case with the Storm-god, we must resort to a descriptive name, or else use the appropriate Hurrian or Akkadian name.
One place to find out more about the Hittites is Hatti - Homeland of the Hittites
II. What Deities did they worship?
The Hittites had an abundant number of local cult deities and sets of local pantheons. As the government became more centralized, particularly during the imperial period around 1400 - 1200 B.C., there were efforts to equate many of these local deities and form a state pantheon. Such a pantheon was headed by the Weather-god/Storm-god, who also represented the mountains, and his consort - usually the earth goddess, who was also attached to the waters of rivers and the sea. The Hittites themselves write of 'the thousand gods of Hatti', and more than eight-hundred such names have been discovered. (Considerably fewer will be dealt with here.) The associated myths have both Hittite and Hurrian content, with the origin of many suspected to be Hurrian. The Kumarbis-Ullukummis myth is chief among the Hurrian tales and the Illuyankas stories and missing god myths of Telipinus and the missing Storm-god are thought to be more Hattic. There also exist fragments of a Hittite version of the Gilgamesh epic and many Akkadian deities were worshiped outright. Doubtless the Hatti left their mark in Hittite religion as well.
You will notice that many of the names carry an optional 's' as a suffix, which comes from the nominative case ending for Hittite.
A. Hittite and Hurrian deities.
Alalu(s)
He was the king in heaven in olden days and Anus was the first among the gods. Anus served as his cupbearer for 9 years before defeating him and dispatching him to under the earth.
Anu(s) (Akkadian in origin)
While Alalus was king in heaven, Anus was more powerful. He served as Alalus' cup bearer for nine years and then defeated him, dispatching him to under the earth. He took his seat on the throne and had Kumarbis as his cupbearer. Likewise, after nine years Kumarbis rebelled, chased Anus - who fled in the sky like a bird, and bit off and swallowed his phallus. In this act Anus had some revenge by impregnating Kumarbis with the Storm-god, the Aranzahus (Tigris) river, and Tasmisus. He then hid himself in heaven. He advised the Storm-god on the places where he might exit Kumarbis. After the Storm-god's birth, they plotted to destroy Kumarbis and, with his other children, apparently succeeded.
Kumarbi(s) - 'the father of all gods' according to the Hurrians.
He is sometimes equated with Enlil and Dagan. His city is Urkis. He thinks wise thoughts and carries a staff. He served as Anus's cup-bearer for nine years and then rebelled, chased Anus, and bit off and swallowed his phallus, thereby becoming impregnated with the Storm-god, the Aranzahus (Tigris) river, and Tasmisus. With that news, he spat out Aranzahus and Tasmisus of on Mount Kanzuras. The Storm-god begins to exit through Kumarbis's 'tarnassus', causing him to moan in pain. He asks Ayas to give him his son to devour, which he does. Ayas has 'poor' magic worked on him and his 'tarnassus' is secured, so the Storm-god exits through his 'good place' instead. He is then presumably defeated by the Storm-god, Anus, and his offspring.
During a plot to overthrow the Storm-god, he lay with a Rock as if it were a woman. He instructs Imbaluris, his messenger to send a message to the Sea, that Kumarbis should remain father of the gods. The Sea hosts a feast for him and later Kumarbis' Rock gives birth to Ullikummis. Kumarbis announces that his son will defeat the Storm-god, his city Kummiya, his brother Tasmisus and the gods from the sky. He charges Imbaluris to seek out the Irsirra deities to hide Ullikummis from the Sun-god, the Storm-god, and Ishtar.
Imbaluris
He is Kumarbis' messenger. He is sent to warn the Sea that Kumarbis' must remain the father of the gods.
Mukisanus
He is Kumarbis' vizier
Hannahanna(s) (Nintu, Mah) - the mother of all the gods.
She is associated with Gulses. After Telepinu disappears, the Storm-god complains to her. She sends him to search himself and when he gives up, she dispatches a bee, charging it to purify the god by stinging his hands and feat and wiping his eyes and feet with wax.
She recommends to the Storm-god that he pay the Sea-god the bride-price for the Sea-god's daughter on her wedding to Telipinu.
Apparently she also disappears in a fit of anger and while she is gone, cattle and sheep are stifled and mothers, both human and animal take no account of their children. After her anger is banished to the Dark Earth, she returns rejoicing. Another meeans of banishing her anger is through burning brushwood and allowing the vapor to enter her body.
After Inara consulted with her, she gave her a man and land. Soon after, Inara is missing and when Hanna hanna is informed thereof by the Storm-god's bee, she apparently begins a search with the help of her Female attendant a. She appears to consult with the Sun-god and the War-god, but much of the text is missing.
Upelluri (Ubelluris)
Similar to Atlas, this giant carries the world on his shoulders. The olden gods built the earth and heaven upon him though he did not notice, even when those two were separated with a cleaver. On the direction of Kumarbis' messenger Imbaluris, the Issira deities place Ullikummis on his right shoulder where the child grows. Ea interviews him, in search of Ullikummis and Upelluri admits to a small pain on his shoulder, although he can't identify which god is causing it.
Storm/Weather-god (Hurrian's Teshub, Taru, Luwian's Tarhun(t) - 'The Conqueror'), 'The king of Kummiya', 'King of Heaven, Lord of the land of Hatti'.
He is chief among the gods and his symbol is the bull. As Teshub he has been pictured as a bearded man astride two mountains and bearing a club. He is a god of battle and victory, especially when the battle is with a foreign power. As Taru, he is the consort of Wurusemu. He was the child of Anus and Kumarbis - conceived along with Tasmisus and the Aranzahus (Tigris) river when Kumarbis bit off and swallowed Anus' phallus. He is, however, considered Ea's son in the myth of Ullikummis. He is informed by Anus of the possible exits from Kumarbis, and tries to exit through Kumarbis's 'tarnassas', causing him great pain. With the 'tarnassas' blocked, he exits through Kumarbis' 'good place'. He plots with Anus, Tasmisus, and Aranzhus to destroy Kumarbis, and apparently succeeds seizing kingship in heaven.
He sent rain after the fallen Moon-god/Kashku when he fell from heaven.
Alerted to the imminent arrival of the Sun-god, who in some myths is his son, he has Tasmisus prepare a meal for their guest and listens to his report about the sudden appearance of the giant Ullikummis. He and Tasmisus then leave the kuntarra and are led to Mount Hazzi by his sister, Ishtar, where they behold the monstrous creature. He looks upon Kumarbis' son with fear and Ishtar chides him. Later, emboldened, he has Tasmisus prepare his bulls and wagon for battle, and has him call out the thunderstorms, lightning and rains. Their first battle resulted in his incomplete defeat. He dispatches Tasmisus to his wife, Hebat, to tell her that he must remain in a 'lowly place' for a term. When Tasmisus returns, he encourages the Storm-god to seek Ea in the city Abzu/Apsu and ask for the 'tablets with the words of fate' (Tablets of Destiny? 'me'?). After Ea cleaves off Ullukummis' feet, he spurs Tasmisus and the Storm-god on to battle the crippled giant. Despite the diorite man's boasting, the Storm-god presumably defeats him.
He fought with the Dragon Illuyankas in Kiskilussa and was defeated. He called the gods for aid, asking that Inaras prepare a celebration. She does so and when the dragon and his children have gorged themselves on her feast, the mortal Hupasiyas binds him with a rope. Then the Storm-god, accompanied by the gods, sets upon them and destroys them.
In another version of that myth, he looses his eyes and heart to Illuyankas after his first battle. He then marries a poor mortal woman and marries their son to Illuyankas daughter. He has the son ask for his eyes and heart. With their return, he attacks the dragon again. When his son sides with Illuyankas, the Storm-god kills them both.
When his son, Telepinus, is missing he despairs and complains to the Sun-god and then to Hannahannas, who tells him to search for him himself. After searching Telepinus' city he gives up.
In other versions of this myth, it is the Storm-god who is missing. One is almost exactly the same, and in another, he journeys to the Dark Earth in his anger, and is returned with the help of his mother - here Wuruntemu/Ereshkigal/the Sun-goddess of Arinna.
He sends Telipinu to recover the Sun-god who had been kidnapped by the Sea-god. The Sea-god is so intimidated that he gives Telipinu his daughter in marriage but demands a bride-price from the Storm-god. After consulting with Hannahanna, he pays the price of a thousand sheep and a thousand cattle.
He notices his daughter, Inara, is missing and sends a bee to Hannahanna to have her search for her.
Seris (Serisu)
This is one of the bulls sacred to the Storm-god. In preparation for battle, the Storm-god has Tasmisus anoint his horns with oil and drive him up Mount Imgarra with Tella and the battle wagon.
Tella (Hurris)
This is another bull sacred to the Storm-god. In preparation for battle, the Storm-god has Tasmisus plate his tail with gold and drive him up Mount Imgarra with Seris and the battle wagon.
Aranzahas - The Tigris river deified.
A child of Anus and Kumarbis, he was the brother of the Storm-god and Tasmisus, spat out of Kumarbis' mouth onto Mount Kanzuras. Later he colludes with Anus and the Storm-god to destroy Kumarbis.
Tasmisus
A child of Anus and Kumarbis, he is conceived along with the Storm-god and Aranzahus. The brother of the Storm-god and Aranzahus, he was spat out of Kumarbis upon Mount Kanzuras. Later he colludes with Anus and the Storm-god to destroy Kumarbis. He serves as the Storm-god's attendant.
He spies the Sun-god approaching and informs the Storm-god that this visit bodes ill. At the Storm-god's command he has a meal set up for their visitor. After the Sun-god's tale, he and the Storm-god depart and are met by Ishtar, who takes them to Mt. Hazzi near Ugarit, where they can see Ullikummis. The Storm-god has him take his bulls up Mt. Imgarra and prepare them for battle. He is also ordered to bring forth the storms, rains, winds, and lightning. After their defeat, he is dispatched by the Storm-god to Hebat, to tell her that he must remain in a 'lowly place' for a term. He returns and encourages the Storm-god to seek Ea in the city Abzu/Apsu and ask for the 'tablets with the words of fate' (Tablets of Destiny? 'me'?). After Ea cleaves off Ullukummis' feet, he spurs Tasmisus and the Storm-god on to battle the crippled giant.
Suwaliyattas
He is a warrior god and probably the brother of the Storm-god.
Hebat (Hurrian name) (Hepit, Hepatu)
The matronly wife of the Storm-god. She is sometimes depicted standing on her sacred animal, the lion. After the Storm-god and Astabis' failed attacks on Ullikummis, the giant forced her out of her temple, causing her to lose communication with the gods. She frets that Ullikummis may have defeated her husband and expresses her concern to her servant Takitis, charging him to convene the assembly of the gods and bring back word of her husband. Presumably she is brought word of his defeat. Tasmisus visits her in the high watchtower, telling her that the Storm-god is consigned to a 'lowly place' for a length of time. She is the mother of Sharruma.
Wurusemu, (Wuruntemu?), 'Sun Goddess of Arrina', 'mistress of the Hatti lands, the queen of heaven and earth', 'mistress of the kings and queens of Hatti, directing the government of the King and Queen of Hatti'
This goddess is later assimilated with Hebat. She made the cedar land. She is the primary goddess in Arrina, with Taru as her consort. She is a goddess of battle and is associated with Hittite military victory. She is the mother of the Storm-god of Nerik, and thereby possibly associated with Ereshkigal. She aids in returning him from the underworld.
Sharruma (Hurrian name), 'the calf of Teshub'
The son of Teshub and Hebat, this god is symbolized by a pair of human legs, or a human head on a bull's body. He is later identified with the Weather-god of Nerik and Zippalanda.
Takitis
He is Hebat's servant. After Hebat was driven from her temple he is told of her concern for her husband and charged with convening the assembly of the gods and returning with word of her husband's fate.
Mezzullas
She is the daughter of the Storm-god and the Sun-goddess of Arinna. She has influence with her parents.
Zintuhis
She is the granddaughter of the Storm-god and the Sun-goddess of Arinna.
Telepinu(s) 'the noble god'
An agricultural god, he is the favorite and firstborn son of the Storm-god. He 'harrows and plows. He irrigates the fields and makes the crops grow.' (Gurney p. 113) He flies into a rage and storms off, losing himself in the steppe and becoming overcome with fatigue. With his departure, fertility of the land, crops and herds disappears and famine besets man and god. Hannahannas's bee finds him, stings his hands and feet, and wipes his eyes and feet with wax, purifying him. This further infuriates him, and he wrecks further havoc with the rivers and by shattering houses and windows. Eventually, the evil and malice is removed through magic by Kamrusepas, but not before Telepinus thunders with lightning. Telepinus returns home, restoring fertility and tending to the life and vitality of the royal family. His prosperity and fertility is symbolized by a pole suspending the fleece of a sheep. In other versions of this myth, the Storm-god or the Sun-god and several other gods are missing instead.
He is asked by his father to recover the Sun-god from the Sea-god, and so intimidates the Sea-god that he is given his daughter as a bride.
Ullikummi(s), the diorite man
He is born of Kumarbis and the Rock. This god is made entirely of diorite. He was born to be used as a weapon to defeat the Storm-godand his allies. Kumarbis had him delivered to the Irsirra deities to keep him hidden from the Storm-god, the Sun-god, and Ishtar. After the Irsirra deities presented him to Ellil, they placed him on the shoulder of Upelluri where he grows an acre in a month.
After fifteen days he grows enough so that he stands waist deep in the sea when the Sun-god and he notice each other. Alerted by the Sun-god, the Storm-god eventually prepares for battle atop Mount Imgarra, yet their first battle results in an incomplete victory. He drives Hebat from her temple, cutting off her communication with the other gods. Astabis leads seventy gods on attack against him, attempting to draw up the water from around him, perhaps in order to stop his growth. They fall into the sea and he grows to be 9000 leagues tall and around, shaking the heavens, the earth, pushing up the sky, and towering over Kummiya. Ea locates him and cuts off his feet with the copper knife that separated the heaven from the earth. Despite his wounds he boasts to the Storm-god that he will take the kingship of heaven. Presumably, he is none-the-less defeated.
Sun-god (of Heaven)
Probably an Akkadian import, this god is one of justice and is sometimes the king of all gods. An ally of the Storm-god, he notices the giant Ullikummis in the sea and visited the Storm-god, refusing to eat until he reports his news. After he has done so, the Storm-god proclaims that the food on the table shall become pleasant, which it does, and so the Sun-god enjoys his meal and returns to his route in heaven.
When Telepinus disappears, bringing a famine, he arranges a feast, but it is ineffective in assuaging their hunger. At the Storm-god's complaint, he dispatches an eagle to search for the god, but the bird is unsuccessful. After the bee discovers Telepinus, he has man perform a ritual. In another version of the missing god myth, he is one of the missing gods. He keeps several sheep. At the end of the day, he travels through the nether-world.
He was kidnapped by the Sea-god and released when Telipinu came for him.
In a longer version of that story, the Sea-god caught him in a net, possibly putting him into a Kukubu-vessel when he fell. During his absence, hahhimas (Frost) took hold.
Hapantallis
He is the Sun-god's shepherd.
Moon-god (Hurrian Kashku)
He fell upon the 'killamar', the gate complex, from heaven and disappeared. Storm-god/Taru rain-stormed after him, frightening him. Hapantali went to him and uttered the words of a spell over him. While known to bestow ill omens, he can be appeased by sheep sacrifice.
The Sea, the Waters
She is told by Imbaluris that 'Kumarbis must remain father of the gods!'. Struck with fear by this message, she makes ready here abode and prepares to act as hostess for a feast for Kumarbis. This feast may have served as a meeting of Mother-goddesses who delivered Kumarbis' child by the Rock, Ullikummis.
The Sea-god
He quarreled and kidnapped the Sun-god of Heaven. When Telipinu came to recover the Sun-god, the Sea-god was so intimidated that he also gave him his daughter. he later demanded a bride-price for her of the Storm-god, and was eventually given a thousand cattle and a thousand sheep. In another version, he caught the Sun-god in a net as he fell, and may have sealed him in a Kukubu-vessel, allowing Hahhimas (Frost to take hold of most of the other gods.
He questions the fire in its role in one of Kamrusepa's healing spells.
Inaras
Daughter of the Storm-god and goddess of the wild animals of the steppe. After the Storm-god's initial defeat by Illuyankas, she follows his request to set up a feast. She recruits Hupasiayas of Zigaratta, to aid in revenge on Illuyankas, by taking him as a lover. She then sets about luring Illuyankas and his children to a feast. After the dragon and his children gorge themselves on her meal, Hupasiayas binds him with a rope. Then the Storm-god sets upon them and defeats them.
She then gives Hupasiayas a house on a cliff to live in, yet warns him not to look out the window, lest he see his wife and children. He disobeys her, and seeing his family begs to be allowed to go home. Gurney speculates that he was killed for his disobedience.
She consults with Hannahanna, who promises to give her land and a man. She then goes missing and is sought after by her father and Hannahanna with her bee.
Illuyankas - the Dragon.
He defeated the Storm-god in Kiskilussa. Later he was lured from his lair with his children by a well dressed Inaras with a feast. After they were too engorged to get into their lair again, the Storm-god, accompanied by the other gods, killed him.
In another version of the myth, he defeated the Storm-god and stole his eyes and heart. Later, his daughter married the son of the Storm-god. Acting on the Storm-god's instruction, his son asked for the eyes and heart. When these were returned to him, the Storm-god vanquished Illuyankas, but slew his son as well when the youth sided with the dragon.
The ritual of his defeat was invoked every spring to symbolize the earth's rebirth.
Hedammu
He is a serpent who loved Ishtar.
Irsirra deities
These gods who live in the dark earth are charged by Kumarbis through Imbaluris to hide Ullikummis from the sky gods, the Sun-god, the Storm-god, and Ishtar. They are also charged with placing the child on the shoulder of Upelluri. Later they accept the child and deliver it to Ellil, before placing it on Upelluri's right shoulder.
Hapantalliyas/Hapantalli
He took his place at the Moon-god's side when he fell from heaven on the gate complex and uttered a spell.
Kamrusepa(s) (Katahziwuri)
She is the goddess of magic and healing. She witnessed and announced the Moon-god's fall from heaven on to the gate complex.
After Telepinus has been found, yet remains angry, she is set to cure him of his temper. She performs an elaborate magical ritual, removing his evil and malice.
In another tablet, she performs the spell of fire, whic removes various illnesses, changing them to a mist which ascends to heaven, lifted by the Dark Earth. The Sea-god questions the fire on its role.
Astabis (Zamama, Akkadian Ninurta)
He is a Hurrian warrior god. After the Storm-god's first attack on Ullikummis is unsuccessful, he leads seventy gods in battle wagons on an attack on the diorite giant. They try to draw the water away from him, perhaps in order to stop his growth, but they fall from the sky and Ullikummis grows even larger, towering over the gate of Kummiya.
Uliliyassis
He is a minor god who, properly attended to, removes impotence.
Kurunta?
This god's symbol is the stag. He is associated with rural areas.
Kubaba
She is the chief goddess of the Neo-Hittites, she became Cybebe to the Phrygians and Cybele to the Romans.
Yarris
He is a god of pestilence. A festival was held for him every autumn.
Hasamelis
He is a god who can protect travelers, possibly by causing them to be invisible.
Zashapuna
He is the chief god of the town of Kastama, held in greater regard there than the Storm-god, possibly gaining such influence through drawing lots with the other gods.
Zaliyanu
She is the wife of Zashapuna.
Zaliyanu
She is the concubine of Zashapuna.
Papaya
One of the deities who sat under the Hawthorn tree awaiting the return of Telipinus.
Istustaya
One of the deities who sat under the Hawthorn tree awaiting the return of Telipinus.
Miyatanzipa
One of the deities who sat under the Hawthorn tree awaiting the return of Telipinu. (S)he? also sat under th ippiyas tree when Hannahanna found the hunting bag.
Fate-goddesses
They were among the deities who sat under the Hawthorn tree awaiting the return of Telipinu. In one myth, they and the Mother-goddesses are missing.
Dark-goddess
One of the deities who sat under the Hawthorn tree awaiting the return of Telipinu.
Tutelary-deity, (Sumerian Lamma)
One of the deities who sat under the Hawthorn tree awaiting the return of Telipinu.
Uruzimu
A deity involved in returning the lost Storm-god of Nerik.
Hahhimas (Frost)
When the Sea-god captures the Sun-god, he takes hold of the other gods and of the land's plants and animals, paralyzing them. He is half-brother to Hasamili's brothers and spares them from his grip.
B. Akkadian Imports:
Anu
See section A.
Antu (See Assyro-Babylonian Antu)
Anu's female counterpart, imported to the Hitties through the Hurrians.
Ellil (See Assyro-Babylonian Ellil)
He is presented with Ullikummis by the Irsirra deities and declares that the child will bring the mightiest battles and an awesome rival to the Storm-god. Later, Ea and presumably the Storm-god present before him a case against Kumarbis' for his creation of Ullikummis. He counters with Kumarbis' good record of worship and sacrifice and is in turn countered with Ea's testimony describing Ullikummis.
Ninlil (See Assyro-Babylonian Ninlil
Ellil's wife. She was imported by way of the Hurrians.
Lelwanis (Lilwani, Ereshkigal, sometimes assimilated with Ishtar), 'Sun of the Earth'
Goddess of the earth and the nether-world, appeasement of her through sheep sacrifices helps remove threats from evil omens.
Ereshkigal
This goddess is the mother of the Storm-god. She plays a role in returning him from the underworld by opening the gates of the Dark Earth.
Ayas (Ea)
He is the keeper of the 'old tablets with the words of fate' (Tablets of Destiny? 'me'?). The Ullikummis myth has him as the father of the Storm-god.
He attends Kumarbis and fetches that god's son to be devoured as a means of releaving Kumarbis pains from the Storm-god. He advises Kumarbis to have experts work 'poor' magic to aid him in his distress, bringing bulls and sacrifices of meal. This magic helps secure Kumarbis's 'tarnassus'.
He is prevailed upon by the Storm-god following his defeat by Ullikummis. He and presumably the Storm-god present a case against Kumarbis' for his creation of Ullikummis before Ellil. Rebutting Ellil's defense that Kumarbis is well behaved regarding worship and sacrifices, Ea proclaims that Ullikummis 'will block off heaven and the gods holy houses.' He seeks out Upelluri, and after interviewing him, locates Ullukummis feet on Upelluri's shoulder. He charges the olden gods to deliver the copper knife with which they severed heaven from earth, in order to cut through Ullukummis' feet. He then spursTasmisus and the Storm-god on to fight the crippled giant.
Tapkina(Hurrian) (Damkina)
Ea's wife, imported from the Akkadians by way of the Hurrians.
Shaushka (Hurrian) (Ishtar)
She takes the form of a winged female standing on a lion.
She spies her brothers, the Storm-god and Tasmisus, leaving the kuntarra following word of the appearance of Ullikummis. She leads them by hand, up Mount Hazzi, from which they can view the giant. When the Storm-god is vexed and fearful at the site of Kumarbis' son, she chides him. Later, she takes up her galgalturi/harp and sings to the blind and deaf Ullikummis, but her folly is exposed to her by a great wave from the sea, who charges her to seek out her brother who is yet to be emboldened to the inevitable battle.
She was loved by the serpent Hedammu.
Ninatta
Shaushka's attendant.
Kulitta
Shaushka's attendant.
C. Demons
Various rituals were performed to call upon demons for protection or to drive away baneful deities summoned by sorcerers.
Alauwaimis
Properly propitiated with ritual, libation, and goat sacrifice, this demon drives away evil sickness.
Tarpatassis
Properly propitiated with ritual and the sacrifice of a buck, this demon staves off sickness and grants long, healthy life.
D. Mortals
Hupasiya(s)
He is a resident of Ziggaratta. He is recruited by Inaras to aid in defeating Illuyankas. He agrees to her plan after elliciting her promise to sleep with him. When Illuyankas and his children are gorged on Inaras's feast, he ties them up for the Storm-god to kill. he is set up in a house by Inaras with the instructions not to look out the window while she is away, lest he see his family. He does, and begs to go home. Here the text is broken and some researches assume that he is killed.
III. Cosmology and the structure of the universe.
I haven't found as much about this as I would like:
The olden gods built heaven and earth upon Upelluri. They had a copper knife which they used to cleave the heaven from the earth, after which they stored it in ancient storehouses and sealed them up - only to open them and retrieve it for use on Ullikummis.
Kuntarra house
The house of the gods in heaven.
The Dark Earth, i.e. the Underworld.
It has an entrance with gates. It holds bronze or iron palhi-vessels with lead lids. That which enters them, perishes within and doesn't return. Telipinu and Hannahanna's anger is banished there.
IV. Source material:
Goetze, Albrecht "Hittite Myths, Epics, and Legends", Ancient Near East Texts Relating to the Old Testament, ed. James Pritchard, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1955. This has been my primary source for the texts of the Hittite myths and prayers.
Gurney, O. R. The Hittites, Penguin Books, New York, 1990. Gurney's work is a solid overview of Hittite history, culture, religion, and mythology.
Hoffner, Harry Hittite Myths, Scholars Press, Atlanta, Georgia, 1990. Intended to be a more idiomatic translation, Hoffner's work also includes material more recent than Goetz. I am replacing that material from Goetz with which this conflicts.
S.H.Hooke Middle Eastern Mythology, Penguin Books, New York,1963. Hooke takes a comparative and summary approach to Sumerian, Babylonian, Canaanite, Hittite, and Hebrew mythological material.
Laroche, Emmanuel, articles within Mythologies Volume One, Bonnefoy, Yves (compiler), The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991. This handful of topically focused articles provides depth in some areas of Hittite and Hurrian religion but lacks an overall picture as Bonnefoy's work was designed for an encyclopedic format.
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SONS OF GOD - THE IDEOLOGY OF ASSYRIAN KINGSHIP
by Professor Simo Parpola
Source: Parpola, Simo (1999) Sons of God - The ideology of Assyrian Kingship. In: Archaeology Odissy Archives, December 1999.
© all rights reserved to author. Text reproduced here as an aid in research and studies purposes only.

The impact of Mesopotamian religious thought on the evolution of other ancient religious and philosophical thought has never been seriously investigated. What follows are my initial forays into this uncharted territory. I suspect the influence has been far greater than anyone has yet suggested.
Take, for example, one small datum: There was a commandment to refrain from work and travel on every seventh day of each month (plus the 19th day). Whether this had any effect on the Israelite commandment to refrain from work and travel on the seventh day, I do not know. It may be simply coincidence. Or there may be some relationship between these prohibitions.
A more substantial matter is the Mesopotamian sense of the king as the son of God. As we shall see, some of the similarities to later religious concepts are rather striking.
In the popular imagination Assyrian kings have long been portrayed as despots of the worst possible kind, spending their time--when not engaging in war or other cruelties--in their harems, immersed in bodily pleasures and revelries. Consider Eugène Delacroix's famous painting The Death of Sardanapalus: Here, an atmosphere of depraved luxury is suggested in the disgusting portrait of this last great Assyrian king (late seventh century B.C.) as described in ancient Greek histories.
The picture of Assyrian kingship that emerges from a study of the documents left by the Assyrians themselves, however, is far different. To the Assyrians, a king immersed in revelries and cruelties would have been an abomination; their kingship was a sacred institution rooted in heaven, and their king was a model of human perfection seen as a prerequisite for man's personal salvation.
The heavenly origin of kingship is already attested in the earliest Mesopotamian cultures. In both Sumerian and Babylonian mythology, it is expressed allegorically with the image of a tree planted upon earth by the mother goddess, Inanna/Ishtar. The sacred tree, usually represented in the form of a stylized palm tree growing on a mountain, is the most common decorative motif in Assyrian royal iconography. It occurs in imperial architecture, on seals and weapons of the ruling elite, on royal jewelry and elsewhere. The walls of the palace of king Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 B.C.) in Kalhu (modern Nimrud) were covered with more than 400 representations of the sacred tree.
The most elaborate rendition of the tree motif in this palace occurs on a relief placed directly behind the royal throne. The tree appears under the winged solar disk of Ashur, the supreme god of the empire. The symbol of the highest god hovering over the tree marks it as the cosmic tree growing on the axis mundi and connecting heaven with earth. It is flanked by two representations of Ashurnasirpal II depicted as the ideal king. This enigmatic tree thus stood in the center of the Assyrian Empire, the middle point of the world from the ideological point of view. The cosmic nature of the tree is implied by its elaborate structure, absolute symmetry and axial balance, as well as by the overall composition of the relief, the flanking figures forcing the viewer's attention towards the center and thence to the winged disk above.
A cosmic tree growing in the middle of the world and connecting heaven with earth was the best imaginable visual symbol for the king's pivotal position as the focal point of the imperial system and the sole representative of god upon earth. When seated on his throne, the king, from the viewpoint of the people present in the throne room, merged with the tree, thus becoming, as it were, its human incarnation. This idea is implicit in the fourth chapter of the biblical Book of Daniel, in which the king of Babylon dreams of a huge tree growing in the middle of the earth, its top reaching the sky, and is told by the prophet: "That tree, O king, is you" (Daniel 4:10-22).
The king's association with the cosmic tree, while part and parcel of Assyrian royal ideology, was inherited from earlier Mesopotamian empires. Several Sumerian kings of the Ur III dynasty, about 2000 B.C., are referred to in contemporary texts as "palm trees" or "mes-trees growing along abundant watercourses." In the Babylonian Epic of Erra, the mes-tree is said to "reach by its roots the bottom of the underworld and by its top the heaven of Anu," thus leaving no doubt about its identification as the cosmic tree.
Representing the king as the personification of the cosmic tree not only emphasized the unique position and power of the king, it also served to underline the divine origin of kingship.
As already noted, the cosmic tree had been planted in the world by the goddess Inanna/Ishtar, who elsewhere figures as the divine mother of the king. In Assyrian imperial art, the goddess nurses the king as a baby or child. The message conveyed was that the king was identical in essence to his divine mother. In keeping with this idea of essential identity, or consubstantiality, the goddess too is identified with the date palm in Assyrian texts.
Since the human king, in contrast to gods, was made of flesh and blood, his consubstantiality with god of course has to be understood spiritually: It did not reside in his physical but in his spiritual nature, that is, in his psyche or soul. He thus was an entity composed of both matter and divine essence. This sounds very like the doctrine of homoousios enunciated at the Council of Nicaea in 325, in which Jesus is said to be "of the same substance" as the Father. According to the Epic of Gilgamesh, the eponymous hero, a "perfect king," was two thirds god and one third man.
Ishtar, the divine mother of the king, was the wife of Ashur, the supreme god of the empire, defined in Assyrian sources as the "sum total of gods" and the only true god. Ashur was thus, by implication, the "heavenly father" of the king, while the latter was his "son" in human form. The Father-Mother-Son triad constituted by Ashur, Ishtar and the king reminds one of the Holy Trinity of Christianity, where the Son, according to Athanasius, is "the selfsame Godhead as the Father, but that Godhead manifested rather than immanent."
The notion of the king as the son of god held true only insofar as it referred to the divine spirit that resided within his human body. In Mesopotamian mythology, this divine spirit takes the form of a celestial savior figure, Ninurta, whose mythological role the Assyrian kings consciously emulated both in ritual and in daily life. The Ninurta myth is known in numerous versions, but in its essence it is a story of the victory of light over the forces of darkness and death. In all its versions, Ninurta, the son of the divine king, sets out from his celestial home to fight the evil forces that threaten his father's kingdom. He proceeds against the "mountain" or the "foreign land," meets the enemy, defeats it and then returns in triumph to his celestial home, where he is blessed by his father and mother. Exalted at their side, Ninurta becomes an omnipotent cosmic accountant of men's fates. It is this that the Assyrian kings emulated.
It is not difficult to recognize in this myth the archetype of the Christian dogma of the elevation of Christ to the right hand of his Father as the judge over the living and the dead. The figure of Ninurta also recalls that of the archangel Michael, the "Great Prince," the slayer of the Dragon and the holder of the celestial keys, in Jewish apocalyptic and apocryphal traditions.
Doctrinally, the perfect king as Ninurta incarnate was the "perfect likeness of god," who shared all the attributes of the godhead. Like Ashur, he was omnipotent, omniscient, profoundly wise and prudent, perfectly just and merciful, all love, glorious and superbly strong. Like the Pauline Christ, he also metaphysically encompassed the whole universe, symbolized by the cosmic tree. In short, he was god in human form, the "perfect man," the only person possibly fit to rule the world as god's earthly representative. As a semi-divine being, he alone of all human beings was surrounded by divine radiance, or melammu, the outward sign of divine perfection.
The Assyrian idea of royal perfection is not elaborated in terms of Aristotelian logic but is expressed only through metaphors, allegories and symbolic imagery. In order to understand it, we must see it through the symbols and images by which it is expressed. The most important of these is the sun, the primary symbol of the supreme god, Ashur. The blinding brilliance of its disk symbolized the absolute purity, holiness and righteousness of god as opposed to the darkness of the world, associated with evil, ignorance, injustice and death. The sun's unwavering, absolutely straight path across the skies, its merciless heat and the triumphant return of light after the winter solstice symbolized god's irresistible victory over wickedness and evil. Finally, the eternal return of the seasons symbolized the eternity of god and kingship as a divine institution eternally regenerating itself, notwithstanding the bodily death of the king.
In Assyrian royal ideology, the king is often referred to as the "sun" or the "very image" of Shamash (the sun god), and the word "king" was commonly written with the sacred number of the sun god, 20.
It was, of course, patently clear to everybody close to the king that whatever his spiritual condition, he was physically human and thus subject to all the weaknesses and imperfections of humankind: disease, bodily injury, misbehavior, imperfect memory and reasoning, error of judgment, faulty decisions, miscalculations, flaws of all sorts and, of course, even physical death.
The fragility of the human component of the king was duly recognized and accepted as an inevitability. However, it could not be tolerated. The king's body was viewed as a temple erected by god himself--the worldly residence of the divine spirit. Like a temple of stone eventually worn and stained by dust, smoke, rain, fire and other agents, it was subject to the constant influence of the elements, pollution, decay and old age. But just as it was unworthy for the image of god to reside in a dirty or dilapidated temple, it was inconceivable that the spirit of god, synonymous with purity, chastity, wisdom, light and perfection, could have resided in a filthy and foul body. It was essential that any stains and defects observed in the king's body and comportment be immediately removed and amended, just as the disk of the sun would soon return to its pristine glory and beauty after an eclipse. If not, the divine spirit would depart from the king's body, leaving behind just an empty shell.
A perfect king, filled with the divine spirit, would be able to exercise a just rule and maintain the cosmic harmony, thus guaranteeing his people divine blessings, prosperity and peace. By contrast, a king failing to achieve the required perfection and thus ruling without the divine spirit, trusting in himself alone, would rule unjustly, disrupt the cosmic harmony, draw upon himself the divine wrath and cause his people endless miseries, calamities and war. The purity and perfection of the king thus had to be maintained at all cost, and it was achieved with the help of god and through the exertions of the king and his closest advisers.
Under this doctrine, godlike perfection was an inherent characteristic of kings, granted to them even before their birth. According to Assyrian royal inscriptions, kings were called and predestined to their office from the beginning of time. Their features were miraculously perfected in their mother's womb by the mother goddess, that is, the spirit of god, and their intellectual and physical abilities were perfected by the great gods, that is, the powers and attributes of god. After birth, they were nursed in the temple of Ishtar and raised there "between the wings of the goddess," being initiated into her sacred mysteries. Their education was completed in the "tablet house," where they received thorough training in all aspects of Mesopotamian learning and wisdom. An inscription of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (668-630 B.C.) elaborates as follows on the careful education this king received:
I learned the craft of the sage Adapa, the hidden secrets of the entire scribal profession. I observed the portents of heaven and earth. I was praised in the meetings of scholars, arguing with expert diviners about the liver, the mirror of heaven. I can solve complicated, elusive mathematical problems. I have read sophisticated texts in obscure Sumerian and in Akkadian difficult to comprehend, and have studied inscriptions on stone from the time before the flood with elite companions.(1)
Having completed his education and proven his valor, the prince who displayed the greatest abilities was chosen and appointed as crown prince by his father. The choice of the prince was confirmed by consulting the divine will through "extispicy" (inspection of the liver, or other entrails, of sacrificed sheep), and on an auspicious day the prince was officially introduced into the royal palace and presented with the royal diadem in a ceremony patterned after the triumphal return of Ninurta to his heavenly father. From now on the prince was considered equal in essence to his father, fit to exercise kingship and assume royal power should his father die.
In the royal palace, the king lived in a sacred space designed and built after celestial patterns and guarded against the material world by deities and apotropaic figures stationed at its gates and buried in its foundations. Colossal supernatural beings in the shape of a bull, lion, eagle and man, symbolizing the four turning points, guarded its gates. These apotropaic colossi marked the palace as a sacred space and thus may be compared to the four guardians of the divine throne in Ezekiel 1:10 and Revelation 4:76, which later re-emerge as symbols of the four evangelists of the New Testament: Matthew (man), Mark (lion), Luke (bull) and John (eagle).
Mythical sages holding buckets of holy water flanked the palace doorways, ready to purify everyone who entered the sacred precinct. The air of the palace was heavy with the fragrance of purifying fumigants and incense, and its rooms were manned by eunuch attendants and bodyguards, whose very asexuality emulated the heavenly host.
The royal entourage, too, was organized after celestial patterns. Just as god was imagined to rule and direct the universe through "the assembly of great gods," the king exercised his rule through a state council composed of eight cabinet ministers, "the assembly of great men." Each of the cabinet ministers represented one of the central attributes or functions of the ideal king; together they constituted his manifest body, which carried out his will both individually and in coordination, like members of a single body.
To reach the greatest possible perfection in decision making and to eliminate, as far as possible, the element of human error, the king made no important political, military or judicial decision without first consulting his cabinet. The final decision was, however, always the king's, and all resolutions of the council were issued in the name of the king alone. For additional safety, the will of the gods was consulted by extispicy before any decision of major importance was implemented.
Over and above the royal council, the safeguarding of royal perfection essentially depended on another group of men attached to the king's service, namely the royal scholars.
These men, experts in five different branches of Mesopotamian learning, functioned as the spiritual guardians and advisers of the king, constantly monitoring his conduct and health and helping him with their advice and expertise whenever needed. It was believed that the king's performance was being constantly watched from heaven and that the gods communicated their pleasure or displeasure with him through a system of signs transmitted in dreams, portents and oracles that could be interpreted and reacted to. Any royal error or act committed against the divine will was a flaw calling for correction and, if perpetuated, divine punishment. However, no punishment was inflicted before the king had been notified of his error and had been given a chance to change his ways. After all, he was god's beloved son.
Apart from reading and reacting to the signs sent by the gods, the royal scholars protected the king against disease-causing demons, black magic and witchcraft.
Every sin or error committed by the king, however small or inadvertent, was a blemish tainting the purity of his soul. Therefore it was imperative that at any sign of divine displeasure an appropriate countermeasure be taken. It was essential that the king mend his ways. Sometimes it was possible to soothe the divine anger by performing an apotropaic ritual. In other cases, however, the portents were so grave that there was no effective counter-ritual: The king had committed a sin so grave that it could be atoned for only with his death. This required enthroning a substitute king, who would take upon himself the sins of the true king and die in his stead, thus enabling his spiritual rebirth.
This rite is not to be misunderstood simplistically as a cheap way of "tricking fate." Its rationale lies in the doctrine of salvation through redemption outlined in the myth of the descent of Ishtar into the netherworld, according to which even a spiritually dead soul (in this case, the king) could be restored to life through repentance, confession of sins and divine grace, and could return to a state of innocence and purity by gradual ascent to higher spiritual states. The relevant ritual put a heavy strain on the king, who had to live an ascetic life and undergo a long and complicated series of ritual purifications during the "reign" of the substitute, which often lasted as long as a hundred days. Again, the emphasis of the ritual is clearly on the repentance of the ruler, not just on the mechanical performance of a set of ritual acts.
We can get an idea of the frame of mind of the king from the prayers he said in the course of the purification rites marking his symbolic ascent from the dead. One of these prayers is reprinted here (see "The King´s Prayer", below).
Fulfilling and executing the ritual aspect of kingship blamelessly was necessary for the maintenance of the divine world order, the primary task of the king. This order of things, embodied in the person of the king and in the Assyrian Empire itself, a true "kingdom of heaven upon earth," did not exist just for its own sake but served a higher purpose: to provide mankind with a living example of spiritual perfection, the attainment of which would open the way to eternal life. Ultimately, then, the role of the king was that of a savior from sin and death, a role that he shared with his celestial paragon, Ninurta.
The path to this spiritual perfection is outlined in the Epic of Gilgamesh, the famous story of the legendary king of Uruk who sought eternal life. At the beginning of the epic, the author informs us that Gilgamesh has returned from his quest with a hidden secret that he has written down for posterity, but nowhere does he reveal what this secret is. He does, however, give clues as to how this "locked lapis lazuli box" can be discovered and opened. These clues include the literary structure of the epic, intertextual allusions, enigmatic passages and intriguing spellings of names and words to be analyzed with the esoteric interpretive techniques used at the time.
An important clue is provided by the curious spelling of the protagonist's name, GISH.GIN.MASH, which when broken down into its logographic components can be interpreted to mean "the man who matched the tree of balance." Another clue is provided by the thematic structure of the epic: Each of its 12 tablets deals with a different spiritual theme associated with a particular great god of the Assyrian pantheon. Remarkably, the order of these gods corresponds to the order in which the same gods are distributed in the Assyrian sacred tree, starting from Nergal, the god of the underworld and sexual power at the root of the tree. Once it is realized that the epic is structured after the sacred tree, the narrative can be read as a path of gradual spiritual development culminating in the achievement of supreme intellectual powers, which enabled the hero to meet his dead friend at the end of the epic and retrieve from him precious information about life after death.
Two crucial points mark the hero's progress towards spiritual perfection: the killing of the monster Humbaba and the felling of the tall cedar tree in Tablet V (which I take to symbolize victory over the "ego") and the killing of the Bull of Heaven in Tablet VI (which I take to symbolize victory over the "id," man's animal soul).
Thanks to the perfection that he achieved, Gilgamesh was granted divinity and made the judge of the netherworld--the Mesopotamian equivalent of Egyptian Osiris's rule--after his physical death. A hymn to Gilgamesh from the royal libraries of Ashurbanipal describes his postmortem perfection in the following way:
O Gilgamesh, perfect king, judge of the Anunnaki, administrator of the netherworld, lord of the dwellers-below! You are a judge and have vision like God; you stand in the netherworld and pronounce final judgment. Your judgment is not altered, your word is not despised; you question, you inquire, you judge, you weigh, and you render the correct decision. Shamash has entrusted verdict and decision in your hands. In your presence kings, regents and princes bow down.
Through his attainment of spiritual perfection, Gilgamesh became the yardstick of man's spiritual value, the ideal weight, so to speak, placed on the other end of the scales to determine the weight of one's soul on the day of judgment. In this role, the perfection of Gilgamesh and the way it was attained became a model for anyone who, like Gilgamesh, dreaded the idea of death and strove for eternal life.
On the surface it might seem that the epic, dealing as it does with the deeds of a king, was addressed principally to a royal audience, as a model of royal perfection. However, there is reason to believe that it was, from the beginning, written for a different readership. Even though the attainment of perfection is presented in the epic as a process taking place in Gilgamesh, a more attentive reading shows that his perfection is an inborn quality decreed to him at birth; aided by gods, he proceeds towards his goal unfalteringly, like the sun, never wavering in his course. Hence, the program of spiritual perfection outlined in the epic actually had no relevance for a king. The true hero of the story, rather, is Gilgamesh's companion, Enkidu, a primitive man who overcomes his animal nature through divine guidance and becomes the partner and indispensable helper of Gilgamesh in his quest for life. The possibility of achieving human perfection is not limited to the king alone.
The esoteric lore I have described did not die with the fall of the Assyrian Empire. The scholars who had previously served the Assyrian emperor later found employment at the courts of the Median and neo-Babylonian kings, the usurpers of Assyria's claim for world dominion.
In due course, we find their descendants teaching Daniel the esoteric secrets of the Chaldeans, advising the Achaemenid kings of Persia, transmitting their wisdom to Pythagoras, waiting at the deathbed of Plato, performing the substitute king ritual for Alexander the Great, reading the physiognomy of Sulla and finally spreading their doctrines in the imperial court of Rome, as highly valued advisers of the emperors Claudius, Nero, Domitian, Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. I venture to suggest that their influence was far greater than is generally believed.
1 Maximilian Streck, Assurbanipal und die letzen könige bis zum untergange Ninevehs, Vorderasiatische Bibliothek 7 (Leipzig, Germany: Hinrichs, 1916), p. 255.


Below, The King´s Prayer, as translated from the cuneiform by Professor W.G. Lambert:
The King's Prayer
Who has kept the commandment for ever?
All of mankind who exist are sinful.
I, your servant, have committed every sin.
I stood at your service, but turned to falsehood,
I spoke lies, I pardoned my own sins,
I spoke improper things, you know them all.
I committed offense against the god who created me,
I did an abomination, ever doing evil.
I coveted your abundant property,
I desired your precious silver.
I raised my hand and desecrated what should not be so treated.
In a state of impurity I entered the temple.
Constantly I committed a terrible abomination against you,
I transgressed your rules in what was displeasing to you.
In the fury of my heart I cursed your divinity,
I have continually committed iniquities, known and unknown.
I went the full length of my wishes, I got iniquity.
Enough, my god! Let your heart rest.
May the goddess who was angry fully subside.
Release the pent-up wrath of your heart,
May your essence by which I swore be reconciled with me.
Though my iniquities be many, release my bond,
Though my transgressions be seven, let your heart rest.
Though my sins be many, show great kindness and cleanse me.
My god, I am exhausted, take my hand,
I fall to the ground, support my head.
I am an ox, I do not know the plants I eat,
I am a sheep, I do not know the absolution rite in which I take part.
I am river water, I do not know where I am going,
I am a ship, I do not know at which quay I put in.
The iniquities, sins, and transgressions of mankind are more numerous than the hairs of his head.
I have trodden on my iniquities, sins and transgressions, which were heaped up like leaves.
On this day let them be released and absolved.
From Wilfred G. Lambert, "DINGIR.SA.DIB.BA Incantations," Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 33 (1974), pp. 283-285.

ÖLÜLER KİTABINDA THOTH
CHAPTER IV

Thoth, the Author of the Book of the Dead.

Thoth, in Egyptian Tchehuti or Tehuti, who has already been mentioned as the author of the texts that form the PER-T EM HRU, or Book of the Dead, was believed by the Egyptians to have been the heart and mind of the Creator, who was in very early times in Egypt called by the natives "Pautti," and by foreigners "Ra." Thoth was also the "tongue" of the Creator, and he at all times voiced the will of the great god, and spoke the words which commanded every being and thing in heaven and in earth to come into existence. His words were almighty and once uttered never remained without effect. He framed the laws by which heaven, earth and all the heavenly bodies are maintained; he ordered the courses of the sun, moon, and stars; he invented drawing and design and the arts, the letters of the alphabet and the art of writing, and the science of mathematics. At a very early period he was called the "scribe (or secretary) of the Great Company of the Gods," and as he kept the celestial register of the words and deeds of men, he was regarded by many generations of Egyptians as the "Recording Angel." He was the inventor of physical and moral Law and became the personification of JUSTICE; and as the Companies of the Gods of Heaven, and Earth, and the Other World appointed him to "weigh the words and deeds" of men, and his verdicts were unalterable, he became more powerful in the Other World than Osiris himself. Osiris owed his triumph over Set in the Great Judgment Hall of the Gods entirely to the skill of Thoth of the "wise mouth" as an Advocate, and to his influence with the gods in heaven. And every follower of Osiris relied upon the advocacy of Thoth to secure his acquittal on the Day of Judgment, and to procure for him an everlasting habitation in the Kingdom of Osiris.
HE BOOK OF THE DEAD.

by E. A. Wallis Budge.

Babylonian and Assyrian religion




Subs
Babylonian religion
Assyrian religion
Mesopotamian gods and goddesses

Babylonian and Assyrian religion coexisted as belief systems for a period of 1300 years, from the 18th century until the 5th century BCE. The belief systems were in competition, and claimed their assets through a focus on qualities and functions, rather than through absolute ownership of the truth.
We know the most about Babylonian religion, but Assyrian religion is very similar in terms of its world view, and its view of humans, of society, and of cult practices and of sacred buildings. The only true difference was with the god revered as supreme among in the divinepantheon. The Assyrians preferred Ashur to the Babylonian Marduk.
Babylonian religion was a continuation of Sumerian religion, with the major change being that their god Marduk was placed on top of the Sumerian pantheon. The older gods of Enki and Enlil remained important gods.
Gods
Babylonian gods were represented as humans, but were defined with superhuman powers. They were in principle immortal, although a god could be killed. As with other pantheons, each god controlled certain aspects of the cosmos, and cults were arranged accordingly.
Beneath Marduk there was a group of popular and important gods. Ea was the god of wisdom, spells and incantations. Sin was the moon god. Shamash was the god of the sun and of justice. Ishtar was the unreliable goddess of love and war.
Under the gods and goddesses there were deities of the underworld; demons, devils, monsters. There were a few good spirits as well.
Temples and Cult
The main gods were revered at large temples; every major city had one. Villages most probably had shrines of some sort. In general, Babylonian and Assyrian religion assumed that a god or a goddess needed a home, or at least a place where humans could communicate with him or her.
Around the 7th century BCE there were as many as 50 temples in Babylon.
The organization of a Babylonian/Assyrian temple had similarities to contemporaryEgyptian temples. There was an open court with fountains for ablution and altars for sacrifices. The indoor parts of the temple contained the dwellings of the god. The god was represented with a statue, and only very few could enter this precinct.
The greatest temples of Babylonia were ziggurats, a sort of step-pyramid. On top of a ziggurat, a sanctuary was placed.
In order to keep the temples functioning, they were provided upon construction with the ownership of land. As gifts were given to the temples, the temples would develop into wealthy organizations, possessing political importance.
In the temples, there were daily ceremonies. More important were the monthly and yearly rituals. The most important festival was the New Year Festival, known as Akitu. This festival lasted for 11 days, and was celebrated in the most lavish ways. The festival concluded in the sacred marriage.
In times of hardship a Babylonian or Assyrian would place his or her problems in front of the chosen god(dess) with great humility, to confess sins and to hope for the help of the deity.
Ethics in Babylonian and Assyrian religion was linked to actions directed towards a society of peace. The ethical system could be deemed humanistic, in which caring for other people was central.
Death and afterlife in Babylonian and Assyrian religion was not viewed in an optimistic light. The view was that the spirit of the deceased would enter the underworld. There was no Paradise or hope for any rewards for the righteous.



    THE RELIGION OF
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA

                                  BY

                     THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, LL.D.

         Lecturer in Assyrian at University College, London,
           Author of "The Old Testament in the Light of the
            Records of Assyria and Babylonia"; "The Bronze
         Ornaments of the Palace Gates of Balewat" etc. etc.



                           PREPARER'S NOTE

  The original text contains a number of characters that are not
  available even in 8-bit Windows text, such as H with a breve below
  it in Hammurabi, S with a breve, S and T with a dot below them, U
  with macron, and superscript M in Tašmêtum. These have been left
  in the e-text as the base letter.

  The 8-bit version of this text includes Windows font characters
  like S with a caron above it (pronounced /sh/) as in Šamaš, etc.
  These may be lost in 7-bit versions of the text, or when viewed
  with different fonts.

  Greek text has been transliterated within brackets "{}" using an
  Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. Diacritical marks have
  been lost.





                         THE RELIGION OF THE
                      BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS



                              CHAPTER I

                               FOREWORD


                        Position, and Period.

The religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians was the polytheistic
faith professed by the peoples inhabiting the Tigris and Euphrates
valleys from what may be regarded as the dawn of history until the
Christian era began, or, at least, until the inhabitants were brought
under the influence of Christianity. The chronological period covered
may be roughly estimated at about 5000 years. The belief of the
people, at the end of that time, being Babylonian heathenism leavened
with Judaism, the country was probably ripe for the reception of the
new faith. Christianity, however, by no means replaced the earlier
polytheism, as is evidenced by the fact, that the worship of Nebo and
the gods associated with him continued until the fourth century of the
Christian era.


                          By whom followed.

It was the faith of two distinct peoples--the Sumero-Akkadians, and
the Assyro-Babylonians. In what country it had its beginnings is
unknown--it comes before us, even at the earliest period, as a faith
already well-developed, and from that fact, as well as from the names
of the numerous deities, it is clear that it began with the former
race--the Sumero-Akkadians--who spoke a non-Semitic language largely
affected by phonetic decay, and in which the grammatical forms had in
certain cases become confused to such an extent that those who study
it ask themselves whether the people who spoke it were able to
understand each other without recourse to devices such as the "tones"
to which the Chinese resort. With few exceptions, the names of the
gods which the inscriptions reveal to us are all derived from this
non-Semitic language, which furnishes us with satisfactory etymologies
for such names as Merodach, Nergal, Sin, and the divinities mentioned
in Berosus and Damascius, as well as those of hundreds of deities
revealed to us by the tablets and slabs of Babylonia and Assyria.


                            The documents.

Outside the inscriptions of Babylonia and Assyria, there is but little
bearing upon the religion of those countries, the most important
fragment being the extracts from Berosus and Damascius referred to
above. Among the Babylonian and Assyrian remains, however, we have an
extensive and valuable mass of material, dating from the fourth or
fifth millennium before Christ until the disappearance of the
Babylonian system of writing about the beginning of the Christian era.
The earlier inscriptions are mostly of the nature of records, and give
information about the deities and the religion of the people in the
course of descriptions of the building and rebuilding of temples, the
making of offerings, the performance of ceremonies, etc. Purely
religious inscriptions are found near the end of the third millennium
before Christ, and occur in considerable numbers, either in the
original Sumerian text, or in translations, or both, until about the
third century before Christ. Among the more recent inscriptions--those
from the library of the Assyrian king Aššur-bani-âpli and the later
Babylonian temple archives,--there are many lists of deities, with
numerous identifications with each other and with the heavenly bodies,
and explanations of their natures. It is needless to say that all this
material is of enormous value for the study of the religion of the
Babylonians and Assyrians, and enables us to reconstruct at first hand
their mythological system, and note the changes which took place in
the course of their long national existence. Many interesting and
entertaining legends illustrate and supplement the information given
by the bilingual lists of gods, the bilingual incantations and hymns,
and the references contained in the historical and other documents. A
trilingual list of gods enables us also to recognise, in some cases,
the dialectic forms of their names.


                    The importance of the subject.

Of equal antiquity with the religion of Egypt, that of Babylonia and
Assyria possesses some marked differences as to its development.
Beginning among the non-Semitic Sumero-Akkadian population, it
maintained for a long time its uninterrupted development, affected
mainly by influences from within, namely, the homogeneous local cults
which acted and reacted upon each other. The religious systems of
other nations did not greatly affect the development of the early
non-Semitic religious system of Babylonia. A time at last came,
however, when the influence of the Semitic inhabitants of Babylonia
and Assyria was not to be gainsaid, and from that moment, the
development of their religion took another turn. In all probably this
augmentation of Semitic religious influence was due to the increased
numbers of the Semitic population, and at the same period the Sumero-
Akkadian language began to give way to the Semitic idiom which they
spoke. When at last the Semitic Babylonian language came to be used
for official documents, we find that, although the non-Semitic divine
names are in the main preserved, a certain number of them have been
displaced by the Semitic equivalent names, such as Šamaš for the
sun-god, with Kittu and Mêšaru ("justice and righteousness") his
attendants; Nabú ("the teacher" = Nebo) with his consort Tašmêtu ("the
hearer"); Addu, Adad, or Dadu, and Rammanu, Ramimu, or Ragimu = Hadad
or Rimmon ("the thunderer"); Bêl and Bêltu (Beltis = "the lord" and
"the lady" /par excellence/), with some others of inferior rank. In
place of the chief divinity of each state at the head of each separate
pantheon, the tendency was to make Merodach, the god of the capital
city Babylon, the head of the pantheon, and he seems to have been
universally accepted in Babylonia, like Aššur in Assyria, about 2000
B.C. or earlier.


                    The uniting of two pantheons.

We thus find two pantheons, the Sumero-Akkadian with its many gods,
and the Semitic Babylonian with its comparatively few, united, and
forming one apparently homogeneous whole. But the creed had taken a
fresh tendency. It was no longer a series of small, and to a certain
extent antagonistic, pantheons composed of the chief god, his consort,
attendants, children, and servants, but a pantheon of considerable
extent, containing all the elements of the primitive but smaller
pantheons, with a number of great gods who had raised Merodach to be
their king.


                             In Assyria.

Whilst accepting the religion of Babylonia, Assyria nevertheless kept
herself distinct from her southern neighbour by a very simple device,
by placing at the head of the pantheon the god Aššur, who became for
her the chief of the gods, and at the same time the emblem of her
distinct national aspirations--for Assyria had no intention whatever
of casting in her lot with her southern neighbour. Nevertheless,
Assyria possessed, along with the language of Babylonia, all the
literature of that country--indeed, it is from the libraries of her
kings that we obtain the best copies of the Babylonian religious
texts, treasured and preserved by her with all the veneration of which
her religious mind was capable,--and the religious fervour of the
Oriental in most cases leaves that of the European, or at least of the
ordinary Briton, far behind.


                     The later period in Assyria.

Assyria went to her downfall at the end of the seventh century before
Christ worshipping her national god Aššur, whose cult did not cease
with the destruction of her national independence. In fact, the city
of Aššur, the centre of that worship, continued to exist for a
considerable period; but for the history of the religion of Assyria,
as preserved there, we wait for the result of the excavations being
carried on by the Germans, should they be fortunate enough to obtain
texts belonging to the period following the fall of Nineveh.


                            In Babylonia.

Babylonia, on the other hand, continued the even tenor of her way.
More successful at the end of her independent political career than
her northern rival had been, she retained her faith, and remained the
unswerving worshipper of Merodach, the great god of Babylon, to whom
her priests attributed yet greater powers, and with whom all the other
gods were to all appearance identified. This tendency to monotheism,
however, never reached the culminating point--never became absolute--
except, naturally, in the minds of those who, dissociating themselves,
for philosophical reasons, from the superstitious teaching of the
priests of Babylonia, decided for themselves that there was but one
God, and worshipped Him. That orthodox Jews at that period may have
found, in consequence of this monotheistic tendency, converts, is not
by any means improbable--indeed, the names met with during the later
period imply that converts to Judaism were made.


                 The picture presented by the study.

Thus we see, from the various inscriptions, both Babylonian and
Assyrian--the former of an extremely early period--the growth and
development, with at least one branching off, of one of the most
important religious systems of the ancient world. It is not so
important for modern religion as the development of the beliefs of the
Hebrews, but as the creed of the people from which the Hebrew nation
sprang, and from which, therefore, it had its beginnings, both
corporeal and spiritual, it is such as no student of modern religious
systems can afford to neglect. Its legends, and therefore its
teachings, as will be seen in these pages, ultimately permeated the
Semitic West, and may in some cases even had penetrated Europe, not
only through heathen Greece, but also through the early Christians,
who, being so many centuries nearer the time of the
Assyro-Babylonians, and also nearer the territory which they anciently
occupied, than we are, were far better acquainted than the people of
the present day with the legends and ideas which they possessed.



                              CHAPTER II

            THE RELIGION OF THE BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS


                The Sumero-Akkadians and the Semites.

For the history of the development of the religion of the Babylonians
and Assyrians much naturally depends upon the composition of the
population of early Babylonia. There is hardly any doubt that the
Sumero-Akkadians were non-Semites of a fairly pure race, but the
country of their origin is still unknown, though a certain
relationship with the Mongolian and Turkish nationalities, probably
reaching back many centuries--perhaps thousands of years--before the
earliest accepted date, may be regarded as equally likely. Equally
uncertain is the date of the entry of the Semites, whose language
ultimately displaced the non-Semitic Sumero-Akkadian idioms, and
whose kings finally ruled over the land. During the third millennium
before Christ Semites, bearing Semitic names, and called Amorites,
appear, and probably formed the last considerable stratum of tribes of
that race which entered the land. The name Martu, the Sumero-Akkadian
equivalent of Amurru, "Amorite", is of frequent occurrence also before
this period. The eastern Mediterranean coast district, including
Palestine and the neighbouring tracts, was known by the Babylonians
and Assyrians as the land of the Amorites, a term which stood for the
West in general even when these regions no longer bore that name. The
Babylonians maintained their claim to sovereignty over that part as
long as they possessed the power to do so, and naturally exercised
considerable influence there. The existence in Palestine, Syria, and
the neighbouring states, of creeds containing the names of many
Babylonian divinities is therefore not to be wondered at, and the
presence of West Semitic divinities in the religion of the Babylonians
need not cause us any surprise.


               The Babylonian script and its evidence.

In consequence of the determinative prefix for a god or a goddess
being, in the oldest form, a picture of an eight-rayed star, it has
been assumed that Assyro-Babylonian mythology is, either wholly or
partly, astral in origin. This, however, is by no means certain, the
character for "star" in the inscriptions being a combination of three
such pictures, and not a single sign. The probability therefore is,
that the use of the single star to indicate the name of a divinity
arises merely from the fact that the character in question stands for
/ana/, "heaven." Deities were evidently thus distinguished by the
Babylonians because they regarded them as inhabitants of the realms
above--indeed, the heavens being the place where the stars are seen, a
picture of a star was the only way of indicating heavenly things. That
the gods of the Babylonians were in many cases identified with the
stars and planets is certain, but these identifications seem to have
taken place at a comparatively late date. An exception has naturally
to be made in the case of the sun and moon, but the god Merodach, if
he be, as seems certain, a deified Babylonian king, must have been
identified with the stars which bear his name after his worshippers
began to pay him divine honours as the supreme deity, and naturally
what is true for him may also be so for the other gods whom they
worshipped. The identification of some of the deities with stars or
planets is, moreover, impossible, and if Êa, the god of the deep, and
Anu, the god of the heavens, have their representatives among the
heavenly bodies, this is probably the result of later development.[*]

[*] If there be any historical foundation for the statement that
    Merodach arranged the sun, the moon, the planets, and the stars,
    assigning to them their proper places and duties--a tradition
    which would make him the founder of the science of astronomy
    during his life upon earth--this, too, would tend to the
    probability that the origin of the gods of the Babylonians was not
    astral, as has been suggested, but that their identification with
    the heavenly bodies was introduced during the period of his reign.


         Ancestor and hero-worship. The deification of kings.

Though there is no proof that ancestor-worship in general prevailed at
any time in Babylonia, it would seem that the worship of heroes and
prominent men was common, at least in early times. The tenth chapter
of Genesis tells us of the story of Nimrod, who cannot be any other
than the Merodach of the Assyro-Babylonian inscriptions; and other
examples, occurring in semi-mythological times, are /En-we-dur-an-ki/,
the Greek Edoreschos, and /Gilgameš/, the Greek Gilgamos, though
Aelian's story of the latter does not fit in with the account as given
by the inscriptions. In later times, the divine prefix is found before
the names of many a Babylonian ruler--Sargon of Agadé,[*] Dungi of Ur
(about 2500 B.C.), Rim-Sin or Eri-Aku (Arioch of Ellasar, about 2100
B.C.), and others. It was doubtless a kind of flattery to deify and
pay these rulers divine honours during their lifetime, and on account
of this, it is very probable that their godhood was utterly forgotten,
in the case of those who were strictly historical, after their death.
The deification of the kings of Babylonia and Assyria is probably due
to the fact, that they were regarded as the representatives of God
upon earth, and being his chief priests as well as his offspring (the
personal names show that it was a common thing to regard children as
the gifts of the gods whom their father worshipped), the divine
fatherhood thus attributed to them naturally could, in the case of
those of royal rank, give them a real claim to divine birth and
honours. An exception is the deification of the Babylonian Noah,
Ut-napištim, who, as the legend of the Flood relates, was raised and
made one of the gods by Aa or Ea, for his faithfulness after the great
catastrophe, when he and his wife were translated to the "remote place
at the mouth of the rivers." The hero Gilgameš, on the other hand, was
half divine by birth, though it is not exactly known through whom his
divinity came.

[*] According to Nabonidus's date 3800 B.C., though many
    Assyriologists regard this as being a millennium too early.


            The earliest form of the Babylonian religion.

The state of development to which the religious system of the
Babylonians had attained at the earliest period to which the
inscriptions refer naturally precludes the possibility of a
trustworthy history of its origin and early growth. There is no doubt,
however, that it may be regarded as having reached the stage at which
we find it in consequence of there being a number of states in ancient
Babylonia (which was at that time like the Heptarchy in England) each
possessing its own divinity--who, in its district, was regarded as
supreme--with a number of lesser gods forming his court. It was the
adding together of all these small pantheons which ultimately made
that of Babylonia as a whole so exceedingly extensive. Thus the chief
divinity of Babylon, as has already been stated, as Merodach; at
Sippar and Larsa the sun-god Šamaš was worshipped; at Ur the moon-god
Sin or Nannar; at Erech and Dêr the god of the heavens, Anu; at Muru,
Ennigi, and Kakru, the god of the atmosphere, Hadad or Rimmon; at
Êridu, the god of the deep, Aa or Êa; at Niffur[*] the god Bel; at
Cuthah the god of war, Nergal; at Dailem the god Uraš; at Kiš the god
of battle, Zagaga; Lugal-Amarda, the king of Marad, as the city so
called; at Opis Zakar, one of the gods of dreams; at Agadé, Nineveh,
and Arbela, Ištar, goddess of love and of war; Nina at the city Nina
in Babylonia, etc. When the chief deities were masculine, they were
naturally all identified with each other, just as the Greeks called
the Babylonian Merodach by the name of Zeus; and as Zer-panîtum, the
consort of Merodach, was identified with Juno, so the consorts, divine
attendants, and children of each chief divinity, as far as they
possessed them, could also be regarded as the same, though possibly
distinct in their different attributes.

[*] Noufar at present, according to the latest explorers. Layard
    (1856) has Niffer, Loftus (1857) Niffar. The native spelling is
    Noufer, due to the French system of phonetics.


            How the religion of the Babylonians developed.

The fact that the rise of Merodach to the position of king of the gods
was due to the attainment, by the city of Babylon, of the position of
capital of all Babylonia, leads one to suspect that the kingly rank of
his father Êa, at an earlier period, was due to a somewhat similar
cause, and if so, the still earlier kingship of Anu, the god of the
heavens, may be in like manner explained. This leads to the question
whether the first state to attain to supremacy was Dêr, Anu's seat,
and whether Dêr was succeeded by Êridu, of which city Êa was the
patron--concerning the importance of Babylon, Merodach's city, later
on, there is no doubt whatever. The rise of Anu and Êa to divine
overlordship, however, may not have been due to the political
supremacy of the cities where they were worshipped--it may have come
about simply on account of renown gained through religious enthusiasm
due to wonders said to have been performed where they were worshipped,
or to the reported discovery of new records concerning their temples,
or to the influence of some renowned high-priest, like En-we-dur-an-ki
of Sippar, whose devotion undoubtedly brought great renown to the city
of his dominion.


                    Was Animism its original form?

But the question naturally arises, can we go back beyond the
indications of the inscriptions? The Babylonians attributed life, in
certain not very numerous cases, to such things as trees and plants,
and naturally to the winds, and the heavenly bodies. Whether they
regarded stones, rocks, mountains, storms, and rain in the same way,
however, is doubtful, but it may be taken for granted, that the sea,
with all its rivers and streams, was regarded as animated with the
spirit of Êa and his children, whilst the great cities and
temple-towers were pervaded with the spirit of the god whose abode
they were. Innumerable good and evil spirits were believed in, such as
the spirit of the mountain, the sea, the plain, and the grave. These
spirits were of various kinds, and bore names which do not always
reveal their real character--such as the /edimmu/, /utukku/, /šêdu/,
/ašakku/ (spirit of fevers), /namtaru/ (spirit of fate), /âlû/
(regarded as the spirit of the south wind), /gallu/, /rabisu/,
/labartu/, /labasu/, /ahhazu/ (the seizer), /lilu/ and /lilithu/ (male
and female spirits of the mist), with their attendants.

All this points to animism as the pervading idea of the worship of the
peoples of the Babylonian states in the prehistoric period--the
attribution of life to every appearance of nature. The question is,
however, Is the evidence of the inscriptions sufficient to make this
absolutely certain? It is hard to believe that such intelligent
people, as the primitive Babylonians naturally were, believed that
such things as stones, rocks, mountains, storms, and rain were, in
themselves, and apart from the divinity which they regarded as
presiding over them, living things. A stone might be a /bît îli/ or
bethel--a "house of god," and almost invested with the status of a
living thing, but that does not prove that the Babylonians thought of
every stone as being endowed with life, even in prehistoric times.
Whilst, therefore, there are traces of a belief similar to that which
an animistic creed might be regarded as possessing, it must be
admitted that these seemingly animistic doctrines may have originated
in another way, and be due to later developments. The power of the
gods to create living things naturally makes possible the belief that
they had also power to endow with a soul, and therefore with life and
intelligence, any seemingly inanimate object. Such was probably the
nature of Babylonian animism, if it may be so called. The legend of
Tiawthu (Tiawath) may with great probability be regarded as the
remains of a primitive animism which was the creed of the original and
comparatively uncivilised Babylonians, who saw in the sea the producer
and creator of all the monstrous shapes which are found therein; but
any development of this idea in other directions was probably cut
short by the priests, who must have realised, under the influence of
the doctrine of the divine rise to perfection, that animism in general
was altogether incompatible with the creed which they professed.


                   Image-worship and Sacred Stones.

Whether image-worship was original among the Babylonians and Assyrians
is uncertain, and improbable; the tendency among the people in early
times being to venerate sacred stones and other inanimate objects. As
has been already pointed out, the {diopetres} of the Greeks was
probably a meteorite, and stones marking the position of the Semitic
bethels were probably, in their origin, the same. The boulders which
were sometimes used for boundary-stones may have been the
representations of these meteorites in later times, and it is
noteworthy that the Sumerian group for "iron," /an-bar/, implies that
the early Babylonians only knew of that metal from meteoric ironstone.
The name of the god Nirig or Ênu-rêštu (Ninip) is generally written
with the same group, implying some kind of connection between the two
--the god and the iron. In a well-known hymn to that deity certain
stones are mentioned, one of them being described as the "poison-
tooth"[*] coming forth on the mountain, recalling the sacred rocks at
Jerusalem and Mecca. Boundary-stones in Babylonia were not sacred
objects except in so far as they were sculptured with the signs of the
gods.[†] With regard to the Babylonian bethels, very little can be
said, their true nature being uncertain, and their number, to all
appearance, small. Gifts were made to them, and from this fact it
would seem that they were temples--true "houses of god," in fact--
probably containing an image of the deity, rather than a stone similar
to those referred to in the Old Testament.

[*] So called, probably, not because it sent forth poison, but on
    account of its likeness to a serpent's fang.

[†] Notwithstanding medical opinion, their phallic origin is doubtful.
    One is sculptured in the form of an Eastern castellated fortress.


                                Idols.

With the Babylonians, the gods were represented by means of stone
images at a very early date, and it is possible that wood was also
used. The tendency of the human mind being to attribute to the Deity a
human form, the Babylonians were no exception to the rule. Human
thoughts and feelings would naturally accompany the human form with
which the minds of men endowed them. Whether the gross human passions
attributed to the gods of Babylonia in Herodotus be of early date or
not is uncertain--a late period, when the religion began to
degenerate, would seem to be the more probable.


                   The adoration of sacred objects.

It is probable that objects belonging to or dedicated to deities were
not originally worshipped--they were held as divine in consequence of
their being possessed or used by a deity, like the bow of Merodach,
placed in the heavens as a constellation, etc. The cities where the
gods dwelt on earth, their temples, their couches, the chariot of the
sun in his temple-cities, and everything existing in connection with
their worship, were in all probability regarded as divine simply in so
far as they belonged to a god. Sacrifices offered to them, and
invocations made to them, were in all likelihood regarded as having
been made to the deity himself, the possessions of the divinity being,
in the minds of the Babylonians, pervaded with his spirit. In the case
of rivers, these were divine as being the children and offspring of
Enki (Aa or Êa), the god of the ocean.


                             Holy places.

In a country which was originally divided into many small states, each
having its own deities, and, to a certain extent, its own religious
system, holy places were naturally numerous. As the spot where they
placed Paradise, Babylonia was itself a holy place, but in all
probability this idea is late, and only came into existence after the
legends of the creation and the rise of Merodach to the kingship of
heaven had become elaborated into one homogeneous whole.


                         An interesting list.

One of the most interesting documents referring to the holy places of
Babylonia is a tiny tablet found at Nineveh, and preserved in the
British Museum. This text begins with the word Tiawthu "the sea," and
goes on to enumerate, in turn, Tilmun (identified with the island of
Bahrein in the Persian Gulf); Engurra (the Abyss, the abode of Enki or
Êa), with numerous temples and shrines, including "the holy house,"
"the temple of the seer of heaven and earth," "the abode of Zer-
panîtum," consort of Merodach, "the throne of the holy place," "the
temple of the region of Hades," "the supreme temple of life," "the
temple of the ear of the corn-deity," with many others, the whole list
containing what may be regarded as the chief sanctuaries of the land,
to the number of thirty-one. Numerous other similar and more extensive
lists, enumerating every shrine and temple in the country, also exist,
though in a very imperfect state, and in addition to these, many holy
places are referred to in the bilingual, historical, and other
inscriptions. All the great cities of Babylonia, moreover, were sacred
places, the chief in renown and importance in later days being the
great city of Babylon, where Ê-sagila, "the temple of the high head,"
in which was apparently the shrine called "the temple of the
foundation of heaven and earth," held the first place. This building
is called by Nebuchadnezzar "the temple-tower of Babylon," and may
better be regarded as the site of the Biblical "Tower of Babel" than
the traditional foundation, Ê-zida, "the everlasting temple," in
Borsippa (the Birs Nimroud)--notwithstanding that Borsippa was called
the "second Babylon," and its temple-tower "the supreme house of
life."


                         The Tower of Babel.

Though quite close to Babylon, there is no doubt that Borsippa was a
most important religious centre, and this leads to the possibility,
that its great temple may have disputed with "the house of the high
head," Ê-sagila in Babylon, the honour of being the site of the
confusion of tongues and the dispersion of mankind. There is no doubt,
however, that Ê-sagila has the prior claim, it being the temple of the
supreme god of the later Babylonian pantheon, the counterpart of the
God of the Hebrews who commanded the changing of the speech of the
people assembled there. Supposing the confusion of tongues to have
been a Babylonian legend as well as a Hebrew one (as is possible) it
would be by command of Merodach rather than that of Nebo that such a
thing would have taken place. Ê-sagila, which is now the ruin known as
the mount of Amran ibn Ali, is the celebrated temple of Belus which
Alexander and Philip attempted to restore.

In addition to the legend of the confusion of tongues, it is probable
that there were many similar traditions attached to the great temples
of Babylonia, and as time goes on, and the excavations bring more
material, a large number of them will probably be recovered. Already
we have an interesting and poetical record of the entry of Bel and
Beltis into the great temple at Niffer, probably copied from some
ancient source, and Gudea, a king of Lagaš (Telloh), who reigned about
2700 B.C., gives an account of the dream which he saw, in which he was
instructed by the gods to build or rebuild the temple of Nin-Girsu in
his capital city.


                   Ê-sagila according to Herodotus.

As the chief fane in the land after Babylon became the capital, and
the type of many similar erections, Ê-sagila, the temple of Belus,
merits just a short notice. According to Herodotus, it was a massive
tower within an enclosure measuring 400 yards each way, and provided
with gates of brass, or rather bronze. The tower within consisted of a
kind of step-pyramid, the stages being seven in number (omitting the
lowest, which was the platform forming the foundation of the
structure). A winding ascent gave access to the top, where was a
chapel or shrine, containing no statue, but regarded by the
Babylonians as the abode of the god. Lower down was another shrine, in
which was placed a great statue of Zeus (Bel-Merodach) sitting, with a
large table before it. Both statue and table are said to have been of
gold, as were also the throne and the steps. Outside the sanctuary (on
the ramp, apparently) were two altars, one small and made of gold,
whereon only unweaned lambs were sacrificed, and the other larger, for
full-grown victims.


                      A Babylonian description.

In 1876 the well-known Assyriologist, Mr. George Smith, was fortunate
enough to discover a Babylonian description of this temple, of which
he published a /précis/. According to this document, there were two
courts of considerable extent, the smaller within the larger--neither
of them was square, but oblong. Six gates admitted to the temple-area
surrounding the platform upon which the tower was built. The platform
is stated to have been square and walled, with four gates facing the
cardinal points. Within this wall was a building connected with the
great /zikkurat/ or tower--the principal edifice--round which were
chapels or temples to the principal gods, on all four sides, and
facing the cardinal points--that to Nebo and Tašmît being on the east,
to Aa or Êa and Nusku on the north, Anu and Bel on the south, and the
series of buildings on the west, consisting of a double house--a small
court between two wings, was evidently the shrine of Merodach (Belos).
In these western chambers stood the couch of the god, and the golden
throne mentioned by Herodotus, besides other furniture of great value.
The couch was given as being 9 cubits long by 4 broad, about as many
feet in each case, or rather more.

The centre of these buildings was the great /zikkurat/, or temple-
tower, square on its plan, and with the sides facing the cardinal
points. The lowest stage was 15 /gar/ square by 5 1/2 high (Smith, 300
feet by 110), and the wall, in accordance with the usual Babylonian
custom, seems to have been ornamented with recessed groovings. The
second stage was 13 /gar/ square by 3 in height (Smith, 260 by 60
feet). He conjectured, from the expression used, that it had sloping
sides. Stages three to five were each one /gar/ (Smith, 20 feet) high,
and respectively 10 /gar/ (Smith, 200 feet), 8 1/2 /gar/ (170 feet),
and 7 /gar/ (140 feet) square. The dimensions of the sixth stage are
omitted, probably by accident, but Smith conjectures that they were in
proportion to those which precede. His description omits also the
dimensions of the seventh stage, but he gives those of the sanctuary
of Belus, which was built upon it. This was 4 /gar/ long, 3 1/2 /gar/
broad, and 2 1/2 /gar/ high (Smith, 80 x 70 x 50 feet). He points out,
that the total height was, therefore, 15 /gar/, the same as the
dimensions of the base, i.e., the lowest platform, which would make
the total height of this world-renowned building rather more than 300
feet above the plains.


                         Other temple-towers.

Towers of a similar nature were to be found in all the great cities of
Babylonia, and it is probable that in most cases slight differences of
form were to be found. That at Niffer, for instance, seems to have had
a causeway on each side, making four approaches in the form of a
cross. But it was not every city which had a tower of seven stages in
addition to the platform on which it was erected, and some of the
smaller ones at least seem to have had sloping or rounded sides to the
basement-portion, as is indicated by an Assyrian bas-relief. Naturally
small temples, with hardly more than the rooms on the ground floor,
were to be found, but these temple-towers were a speciality of the
country.


                            Their origin.

There is some probability that, as indicated in the tenth chapter of
Genesis, the desire in building these towers was to get nearer the
Deity, or to the divine inhabitants of the heavens in general--it
would be easier there to gain attention than on the surface of the
earth. Then there was the belief, that the god to whom the place was
dedicated would come down to such a sanctuary, which thus became, as
it were, the stepping-stone between heaven and earth. Sacrifices were
also offered at these temple-towers (whether on the highest point or
not is not quite certain), in imitation of the Chaldæan Noah,
Ut-napištim, who, on coming out of the ark, made an offering /ina
zikkurat šadê/, "on the peak of the mountain," in which passage, it is
to be noted, the word /zikkurat/ occurs with what is probably a more
original meaning.



                             CHAPTER III

                 THE BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE CREATION

This is the final development of the Babylonian creed. It has already
been pointed out that the religion of the Babylonians in all
probability had two stages before arriving at that in which the god
Merodach occupied the position of chief of the pantheon, the two
preceding heads having been, seemingly, Anu, the god of the heavens,
and Êa or Aa, also called Enki, the god of the abyss and of deep
wisdom. In order to show this, and at the same time to give an idea of
their theory of the beginning of things, a short paraphrase of the
contents of the seven tablets will be found in the following pages.


                      An Embodiment of doctrine.

As far as our knowledge goes, the doctrines incorporated in this
legend would seem to show the final official development of the
beliefs held by the Babylonians, due, in all probability, to the
priests of Babylon after that city became the capital of the federated
states. Modifications of their creed probably took place, but nothing
seriously affecting it, until after the abandonment of Babylon in the
time of Seleucus Nicator, 300 B.C. or thereabouts, when the deity at
the head of the pantheon seems not to have been Merodach, but Anu-Bêl.
This legend is therefore the most important document bearing upon the
beliefs of the Babylonians from the end of the third millennium B.C.
until that time, and the philosophical ideas which it contains seem to
have been held, in a more or less modified form, among the remnants
who still retained the old Babylonian faith, until the sixth century
of the present era, as the record by Damascius implies. Properly
speaking, it is not a record of the creation, but the story of the
fight between Bel and the Dragon, to which the account of the creation
is prefixed by way of introduction.


                       Water the first creator.

The legend begins by stating that, when the heavens were unnamed and
the earth bore no name, the primæval ocean was the producer of all
things, and Mummu Tiawath (the sea) she who brought forth everything
existing. Their waters (that is, of the primæval ocean and of the sea)
were all united in one, and neither plains nor marshes were to be
seen; the gods likewise did not exist, even in name, and the fates
were undetermined--nothing had been decided as to the future of
things. Then arose the great gods. Lahmu and Lahame came first,
followed, after a long period, by Anšar and Kišar, generally
identified with the "host of heaven" and the "host of earth," these
being the meanings of the component parts of their names. After a
further long period of days, there came forth their son Anu, the god
of the heavens.


                              The gods.

Here the narrative is defective, and is continued by Damascius in his
/Doubts and Solutions of the First Principles/, in which he states
that, after Anos (Anu), come Illinos (Ellila or Bel, "the lord" /par
excellence/) and Aos (Aa, Ae, or Êa), the god of Eridu. Of Aos and
Dauké (the Babylonian Aa and Damkina) is born, he says, a son called
Belos (Bel-Merodach), who, they (apparently the Babylonians) say, is
the fabricator of the world--the creator.


                      The designs against them.

At this point Damascius ends his extract, and the Babylonian tablet
also becomes extremely defective. The next deity to come into
existence, however, would seem to have been Nudimmud, who was
apparently the deity Aa or Êa (the god of the sea and of rivers) as
the god of creation. Among the children of Tauthé (Tiawath) enumerated
by Damascius is one named Moumis, who was evidently referred to in the
document at that philosopher's disposal. If this be correct, his name,
under the form of Mummu, probably existed in one of the defective
lines of the first portion of this legend--in any case, his name
occurs later on, with those of Tiawath and Apsu (the Deep), his
parents, and the three seem to be compared, to their disadvantage,
with the progeny of Lahmu and Lahame, the gods on high. As the ways of
these last were not those of Tiawath's brood, and Apsu complained that
he had no peace by day nor rest by night on account of their
proceedings, the three representatives of the chaotic deep, Tiawath,
Apsu, and Mummu, discussed how they might get rid the beings who
wished to rise to higher things. Mummu was apparently the prime mover
in the plot, and the face of Apsu grew bright at the thought of the
evil plan which they had devised against "the gods their sons." The
inscription being very mutilated here, its full drift cannot be
gathered, but from the complete portions which come later it would
seem that Mummu's plan was not a remarkably cunning one, being simply
to make war upon and destroy the gods of heaven.


                       Tiawath's preparations.

The preparations made for this were elaborate. Restlessly, day and
night, the powers of evil raged and toiled, and assembled for the
fight. 'Mother Hubur," as Tiawath is named in this passage, called her
creative powers into action, and gave her followers irresistible
weapons. She brought into being also various monsters--giant serpents,
sharp of tooth, bearing stings, and with poison filling their bodies
like blood; terrible dragons endowed with brilliance, and of enormous
stature, reared on high, raging dogs, scorpion-men, fish-men, and many
other terrible beings, were created and equipped, the whole being
placed under the command of a deity named Kingu, whom she calls her
"only husband," and to whom she delivers the tablets of fate, which
conferred upon him the godhead of Anu (the heavens), and enabled their
possessor to determine the gates among the gods her sons.


                         Kingu replaces Absu.

The change in the narrative which comes in here suggests that this is
the point at which two legends current in Babylonia were united.
Henceforward we hear nothing more of Apsu, the begetter of all things,
Tiawath's spouse, nor of Mummu, their son. In all probability there is
good reason for this, and inscriptions will doubtless ultimately be
found which will explain it, but until then it is only natural to
suppose that two different legends have been pieced together to form a
harmonious whole.


                            Tiawath's aim.

As will be gathered from the above, the story centres in the wish of
the goddess of the powers of evil and her kindred to retain creation--
the forming of all living things--in her own hands. As Tiawath means
"the sea," and Apsu "the deep," it is probable that this is a kind of
allegory personifying the productive power seen in the teeming life of
the ocean, and typifying the strange and wonderful forms found
therein, which were symbolical, to the Babylonian mind, of chaos and
confusion, as well as of evil.


                   The gods hear of the conspiracy.

Aa, or Êa, having learned of the plot of Tiawath and her followers
against the gods of heaven, naturally became filled with anger, and
went and told the whole to Anšar, his father, who in his turn gave way
to his wrath, and uttered cries of the deepest grief. After
considering what they would do, Anšar applied to his son Anu, "the
mighty and brave," saying that, if he would only speak to her, the
great dragon's anger would be assuaged, and her rage disappear. In
obedience to this behest, Anu went to try his power with the monster,
but on beholding her snarling face, feared to approach her, and turned
back. Nudimmud was next called upon to become the representative of
the gods against their foe, but his success was as that of Anu, and it
became needful to seek another champion.


                And choose Merodach as their champion.

The choice fell upon Merodach, the Belus (Bel-Merodach) of Damascius's
paraphrase, and at once met with an enthusiastic reception. The god
asked simply that an "unchangeable command" might be given to him--
that whatever he ordained should without fail come to pass, in order
that he might destroy the common enemy. Invitations were sent to the
gods asking them to a festival, where, having met together, they ate
and drank, and "decided the fate" for Merodach their avenger,
apparently meaning that he was decreed their defender in the conflict
with Tiawath, and that the power of creating and annihilating by the
word of his mouth was his. Honours were then conferred upon him;
princely chambers were erected for him, wherein he sat as judge "in
the presence of his fathers," and the rule over the whole universe was
given to him. The testing of his newly acquired power followed. A
garment was placed in their midst:

  "He spake with his mouth, and the garment was destroyed,
  He spake to it again, and the garment was reproduced."


                      Merodach proclaimed king.

On this proof of the reality of the powers conferred on him, all the
gods shouted "Merodach is king!" and handed to him sceptre, throne,
and insignia of royalty. An irresistible weapon, which should shatter
all his enemies, was then given to him, and he armed himself also with
spear or dart, bow, and quiver; lightning flashed before him, and
flaming fire filled his body. Anu, the god of the heavens, had given
him a great net, and this he set at the four cardinal points, in order
that nothing of the dragon, when he had defeated her, should escape.
Seven winds he then created to accompany him, and the great weapon
called /Abubu/, "the Flood," completed his equipment. All being ready,
he mounted his dreadful, irresistible chariot, to which four steeds
were yoked--steeds unsparing, rushing forward, rapid in flight, their
teeth full of venom, foam-covered, experienced in galloping, schooled
in overthrowing. Being now ready for the fray, Merodach fared forth to
meet Tiawath, accompanied by the fervent good wishes of "the gods his
fathers."


                       The fight with Tiawath.

Advancing, he regarded Tiawath's retreat, but the sight of the enemy
was so menacing that even the great Merodach (if we understand the
text rightly) began to falter. This, however, was not for long, and
the king of the gods stood before Tiawath, who, on her side, remained
firm and undaunted. In a somewhat long speech, in which he reproaches
Tiawath for her rebellion, he challenges her to battle, and the two
meet in fiercest fight. To all appearance the type of all evil did not
make use of honest weapons, but sought to overcome the king of the
gods with incantations and charms. These, however, had not the
slightest effect, for she found herself at once enclosed in Merodach's
net, and on opening her mouth to resist and free herself, the evil
wind, which Merodach had sent on before him, entered, so that she
could not close her lips, and thus inflated, her heart was
overpowered, and she became a prey to her conqueror. Having cut her
asunder and taken out her heart, thus destroying her life, he threw
her body down and stood thereon. Her followers then attempted to
escape, but found themselves surrounded and unable to get forth. Like
their mistress, they were thrown into the net, and sat in bonds, being
afterwards shut up in prison. As for Kingu, he was raised up, bound,
and delivered to be with Ugga, the god of death. The tablets of fate,
which Tiawath had delivered to Kingu, were taken from him by Merodach,
who pressed his seal upon them, and placed them in his breast. The
deity Anšar, who had been, as it would seem, deprived of his rightful
power by Tiawath, received that power again on the death of the common
foe, and Nudimmud "saw his desire upon his enemy."


                           Tiawath's fate.

The dismemberment of Tiawath then followed, and her veins having been
cut through, the north wind was caused by the deity to carry her blood
away into secret places, a statement which probably typifies the
opening of obstructions which prevent the rivers flowing from the
north from running into the southern seas, helped thereto by the north
wind. Finally her body was divided, like "a /mašdê/-fish," into two
parts, one of which was made into a covering for the heavens--the
"waters above the firmament" of Genesis i. 7.


                   Merodach orders the world anew.

Then came the ordering of the universe anew. Having made a covering
for the heavens with half the body of the defeated Dragon of Chaos,
Merodach set the Abyss, the abode of Nudimmud, in front, and made a
corresponding edifice above--the heavens--where he founded stations
for the gods Anu, Bel, and Ae. Stations for the great gods in the
likeness of constellations, together with what is regarded as the
Zodiac, were his next work. He then designated the year, setting three
constellations for each month, and made a station for Nibiru--
Merodach's own star--as the overseer of all the lights in the
firmament. He then caused the new moon, Nannaru, to shine, and made
him the ruler of the night, indicating his phases, one of which was on
the seventh day, and the other, a /šabattu/, or day of rest, in the
middle of the month. Directions with regard to the moon's movements
seem to follow, but the record is mutilated, and their real nature
consequently doubtful. With regard to other works which were performed
we have no information, as a gap prevents their being ascertained.
Something, however, seems to have been done with Merodach's net--
probably it was placed in the heavens as a constellation, as was his
bow, to which several names were given. Later on, the winds were bound
and assigned to their places, but the account of the arrangement of
other things is mutilated and obscure, though it can be recognised
that the details in this place were of considerable interest.


                         The creation of man.

To all appearance the gods, after he had ordered the universe and the
things then existing, urged Merodach to further works of wonder.
Taking up their suggestion, he considered what he should do, and then
communicated to his father Ae his plan for the creation of man with
his own blood, in order that the service and worship of the gods might
be established. This portion is also unfortunately very imperfect, and
the details of the carrying out of the plan are entirely wanting.


                  Berosus' narrative fills the gap.

It is noteworthy that this portion of the narrative has been preserved
by Abydenus, George the Syncellus, and Eusebius, in their quotations
from Berosus. According to this Chaldæan writer, there was a woman
named Omoroca, or, in Chaldæan, Thalatth (apparently a mistake for
Thauatth, i.e. Tiawath), whose name was equivalent to the Greek
Thalassa, the sea. It was she who had in her charge all the strange
creatures then existing. At this period, Belus (Bel-Merodach) came,
and cut the woman asunder, forming out of one half the earth, and of
the other the heavens, at the same time destroying all the creatures
which were within her--all this being an allegory, for the whole
universe consists of moisture, and creatures are constantly generated
therein. The deity then cut off his own head, and the other gods mixed
the blood, as it gushed out, with the earth, and from this men were
formed. Hence it is that men are rational, and partake of divine
knowledge.


                          A second creation.

This Belsus, "who is called Zeus," divided the darkness, separated the
heavens from the earth, and reduced the universe to order. The animals
which had been created, however, not being able to bear the light,
died. Belus then, seeing the void thus made, ordered one of the gods
to take off his head, and mix the blood with the soil, forming other
men and animals which should be able to bear the light. He also formed
the stars, the sun, the moon, and the five planets. It would thus seem
that there were two creations, the first having been a failure because
Belus had not foreseen that it was needful to produce beings which
should be able to bear the light. Whether this repetition was really
in the Babylonian legend, or whether Berosus (or those who quote him)
has merely inserted and united two varying accounts, will only be
known when the cuneiform text is completed.


                        The concluding tablet.

The tablet of the fifty-one names completes the record of the tablets
found at Nineveh and Babylon. In this Merodach receives the titles of
all the other gods, thus identifying him with them, and leading to
that tendency to monotheism of which something will be said later on.
In this text, which is written, like the rest of the legend, in
poetical form, Merodach is repeatedly called /Tutu/, a mystic word
meaning "creator," and "begetter," from the reduplicate root /tu/ or
/utu/--which was to all appearances his name when it was desired to
refer to him especially in that character. Noteworthy in this portion
is the reference to Merodach's creation of mankind:--

Line 25. "Tuto: Aga-azaga (the glorious crown)--may he make the crowns
         glorious.
     26. The lord of the glorious incantation bringing the dead to
         life;
     27. He who had mercy on the gods who had been overpowered;
     28. Made heavy the yoke which he had laid on the gods who were
         his enemies,
     29. (And) to redeem(?) them, created mankind.
     30. 'The merciful one,' 'he with whom is salvation,'
     31. May his word be established, and not forgotten,
     32. In the mouth of the black-headed ones[*] whom his hands have
         made."

[*] I.e. mankind.


                          Man the redeemer.

The phrase "to redeem them" is, in the original, /ana padi-šunu/, the
verb being from /padû/, "to spare," "set free," and if this rendering
be correct, as seems probable, the Babylonian reasons for the creation
of mankind would be, that they might carry on the service and worship
of the gods, and by their righteousness redeem those enemies of the
gods who were undergoing punishment for their hostility. Whether by
this Tiawath, Apsu, Mummu, Kingu, and the monsters whom she had
created were included, or only the gods of heaven who had joined her,
the record does not say. Naturally, this doctrine depends entirely
upon the correctness of the translation of the words quoted. Jensen,
who first proposed this rendering, makes no attempt to explain it, and
simply asks: "Does 'them' in 'to redeem(?) them' refer to the gods
named in line 28 or to mankind and then to a future--how meant?--
redemption? Eschatology? Zimmern's 'in their place' unprovable.
Delitzsch refrains from an explanation."


     The bilingual account of the creation. Aruru aids Merodach.

Whilst dealing with this part of the religious beliefs of the
Babylonians, a few words are needed concerning the creation-story
which is prefixed to an incantation used in a purification ceremony.
The original text is Sumerian (dialectic), and is provided with a
Semitic translation. In this inscription, after stating that nothing
(in the beginning) existed, and even the great cities and temples of
Babylonia were as yet unbuilt, the condition of the world is briefly
indicated by the statement that "All the lands were sea." The renowned
cities of Babylonia seem to have been regarded as being as much
creations of Merodach as the world and its inhabitants--indeed, it is
apparently for the glorification of those cities by attributing their
origin to Merodach, that the bilingual account of the creation was
composed.. "When within the sea there was a stream"--that is, when the
veins of Tiawath had been cut through--Êridu (probably = Paradise) and
the temple Ê-sagila within the Abyss were constructed, and after that
Babylon and the earthly temple of Ê-sagila within it. Then he made the
gods and the Annunnaki (the gods of the earth), proclaimed a glorious
city as the seat of the joy of their hearts, and afterwards made a
pleasant place in which the gods might dwell. The creation of mankind
followed, in which Merodach was aided by the goddess Aruru, who made
mankind's seed. Finally, plants, trees, and the animals, were
produced, after which Merodach constructed bricks, beams, houses, and
cities, including Niffer and Erech with their renowned temples.

We see here a change in the teaching with regard to Merodach--the gods
are no longer spoken of as "his fathers," but he is the creator of the
gods, as well as of mankind.


            The order of the gods in the principal lists.

It is unfortunate that no lists of gods have been found in a
sufficiently complete state to allow of the scheme after which they
were drawn up to be determined without uncertainty. It may,
nevertheless, be regarded as probable that these lists, at least in
some cases, are arranged in conformity (to a certain extent) with the
appearance of the deities in the so-called creation-story. Some of
them begin with Anu, and give him various names, among them being
Anšar and Kišar, Lahmu and Lahame, etc. More specially interesting,
however, is a well-known trilingual list of gods, which contains the
names of the various deities in the following order:--

                  EXTRACTS FROM THE TRILINGUAL LIST
                              /Obverse/

    Sumer. Dialect      Sumer. Standard     Common              Explanation
                                            (Semit. or Sumer.)

 1. Dimmer              Dingir              Îlu                 God.
 2. U-ki                En-ki               Ê-a                 Êa or Aa.
 3. Gašan(?)-ki         Nin-ki              Dawkina             Dauké, the consort of Êa.
 4. Mu-ul-lil           En-lil-la           Bêl                 The God Bel.
 5. E-lum               A-lim               Bêl
 6. Gašan(?)-lil        Nin-lil-la          dam-bi sal          Bel's consort.
 7. U-lu-a              Ni-rig              Ênu-rêštu           The god of Niffer.
 8. U-lib-a             Ni-rig              Ênu-rêštu

9-12 have Ênu-rêštu's consort, sister, and attendant.

13. U-šab-sib           En-šag-duga         Nusku               Nusku

14-19 have two other names of Nusku, followed by three names of his
    consort. A number of names of minor divinities then follow. At
    line 43 five names of Êa are given, followed by four of
    Merodach:--

48. U-bi-lu-lu          En-bi-lu-lu         Marduk              Merodach
49. U-Tin-dir ki        En-Tin-dir ki       Marduk              Merodach as "lord of Babylon."
50. U-dimmer-an-kia     En-dinger-an-kia    Marduk              Merodach as "lord god of heaven and earth."
51. U-ab-šar-u          En-ab-šar-u         Marduk              Merodach, apparently as "lord of the 36,000 steers."
52. U-bar-gi-si         Nin-bar-gi-si       Zer-panîtum         Merodach's consort.
53. Gašan-abzu          Nin-abzu            dam-bi sal          "the Lady of the Abyss," his consort.

The remainder of the obverse is mutilated, but gave the names of Nebo
in Sumerian, and apparently also of Tašmêtum, his consort. The
beginning of the reverse also is mutilated, but seems to have given
the names of the sun-god, Šamaš, and his consort, followed by those of
Kîttu and Mêšarum, "justice and righteousness," his attendants. Other
interesting names are:

                              /Reverse/

 8. U-libir-si          En-ubar-si          Dumu-zi             Tammuz
 9. Sir-tumu            Sir-du              ama Dumuzi-gi       the mother of Tammuz
12. Gašan-anna          Innanna             Ištar               Ištar (Venus) as "lady of heaven."
20.                     Nin-si-anna         Innanna mul         Ištar the star (the planet Venus).
21. Nin                 Nin-tag-taga        Nanaa               a goddess identified with Ištar.
23. U-šah               Nina-šah            Pap-sukal           the gods' messenger.
24. U-banda             Lugal-banda         Lugal-banda
26. U-Mersi             Nin-Girsu           Nin-Girsu           the chief god of Lagaš.
27. Ma-sib-sib          Ga-tum-duga         Bau                 Bau, a goddess identified with Gula.

Four non-Semitic names of Gula follow, of which that in line 31 is the
most interesting:--

31. Gašan-ti-dibba      Nin-tin-guua        Gula                "the lady saving from death."
33. Gašan-ki-gal        Ereš-ki-gala        Allatu              Persephone.
36. U-mu-zi-da          Nin-giš-zi-da       Nin-giš-zida        "the lord of the everlasting tree."
37. U-urugal            Ne-eri-gal          Nerigal             Nergal.
42. Mulu-hursag         Galu-hursag         Amurru              the Amorite god.
43. Gašan-gu-edina      Nin-gu-edina                            (apparently the consort of Amurru).

In all probability this list is one of comparatively late date, though
its chronological position with regard to the others is wholly
uncertain--it may not be later, and may even be earlier, than those
beginning with Anu, the god of the heavens. The important thing about
it is, that it begins with /îlu/, god, in general, which is written,
in the standard dialect (that of the second column) with the same
character as that used for the name of Anu. After this comes Aa or Êa,
the god of the earth, and his consort, followed by En-lilla, the older
Bel--Illinos in Damascius. The name of Êa is repeated again in line 43
and following, where he is apparently re-introduced as the father of
Merodach, whose names immediately follow. This peculiarity is also
found in other lists of gods and is undoubtedly a reflection of the
history of the Babylonian religion. As this list replaces Anu by
/îlu/, it indicates the rule of Enki or Êa, followed by that of
Merodach, who, as has been shown, became the chief divinity of the
Babylonian pantheon in consequence of Babylon having become the
capital of the country.

The importance of the subject.

Of equal antiquity with the religion of Egypt, that of Babylonia and
Assyria possesses some marked differences as to its development.
Beginning among the non-Semitic Sumero-Akkadian population, it
maintained for a long time its uninterrupted development, affected
mainly by influences from within, namely, the homogeneous local cults
which acted and reacted upon each other. The religious systems of
other nations did not greatly affect the development of the early
non-Semitic religious system of Babylonia. A time at last came,
however, when the influence of the Semitic inhabitants of Babylonia
and Assyria was not to be gainsaid, and from that moment, the
development of their religion took another turn. In all probably this
augmentation of Semitic religious influence was due to the increased
numbers of the Semitic population, and at the same period the Sumero-
Akkadian language began to give way to the Semitic idiom which they
spoke. When at last the Semitic Babylonian language came to be used
for official documents, we find that, although the non-Semitic divine
names are in the main preserved, a certain number of them have been
displaced by the Semitic equivalent names, such as Šamaš for the
sun-god, with Kittu and Mêšaru ("justice and righteousness") his
attendants; Nabú ("the teacher" = Nebo) with his consort Tašmêtu ("the
hearer"); Addu, Adad, or Dadu, and Rammanu, Ramimu, or Ragimu = Hadad
or Rimmon ("the thunderer"); Bêl and Bêltu (Beltis = "the lord" and
"the lady" /par excellence/), with some others of inferior rank. In
place of the chief divinity of each state at the head of each separate
pantheon, the tendency was to make Merodach, the god of the capital
city Babylon, the head of the pantheon, and he seems to have been
universally accepted in Babylonia, like Aššur in Assyria, about 2000
B.C. or earlier.
CHAPTER IV

         THE PRINCIPAL GODS OF THE BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS


                                 Anu.

The name of this divinity is derived from the Sumero-Akkadian /ana/,
"heaven," of which he was the principal deity. He is called the father
of the great gods, though, in the creation-story, he seems to be
described as the son of Anšar and Kišar. In early names he is
described as the father, creator, and god, probably meaning the
supreme being. His consort was Anatu, and the pair are regarded in the
lists as the same as the Lahmu and Lahame of the creation-story, who,
with other deities, are also described as gods of the heavens. Anu was
worshipped at Erech, along with Ištar.


                                 Ea.

Is given as if it were the /Semitic/ equivalent of /Enki/, "the lord
of the earth," but it would seem to be really a Sumerian word, later
written /Ae/, and certain inscriptions suggest that the true reading
was /Aa/. His titles are "king of the Abyss, creator of everything,
lord of all," the first being seemingly due to the fact that Aa is a
word which may, in its reduplicate form, mean "waters," or if read
/Êa/, "house of water." He also, like Anu, is called "father of the
gods." As this god was likewise "lord of deep wisdom," it was to him
that his son Merodach went for advice whenever he was in doubt. On
account of his knowledge, he was the god of artisans in general--
potters, blacksmiths, sailors, builders, stone-cutters, gardeners,
seers, barbers, farmers, etc. This is the Aos (a form which confirms
the reading Aa) of Damascius, and the Oannes of the extracts from
Berosus, who states that he was "a creature endowed with reason, with
a body like that of a fish, and under the fish's head another head,
with feet below, like those of a man, with a fish's tail." This
description applies fairly well to certain bas-reliefs from Nimroud in
the British Museum. The creature described by Berosus lived in the
Persian Gulf, landing during the day to teach the inhabitants the
building of houses and temples, the cultivation of useful plants, the
gathering of fruits, and also geometry, law, and letters. From him,
too, came the account of the beginning of things referred to in
chapter III. which, in the original Greek, is preceded by a
description of the composite monsters said to have existed before
Merodach assumed the rule of the universe.

The name of his consort, Damkina or Dawkina, probably means "the
eternal spouse," and her other names, /Gašan-ki/ (Sumerian dialectic)
and /Nin-ki/ (non-dialectic), "Lady of the earth," sufficiently
indicates her province. She is often mentioned in the incantations
with Êa.

The forsaking of the worship of Êa as chief god for that of Merodach
seems to have caused considerable heartburning in Babylonia, if we may
judge from the story of the Flood, for it was on account of his
faithfulness that Utnipištim, the Babylonian Noah, attained to
salvation from the Flood and immortality afterwards. All through this
adventure it was the god Êa who favoured him, and afterwards gave him
immortality like that of the gods. There is an interesting Sumerian
text in which the ship of Êa seems to be described, the woods of which
its various parts were formed being named, and in it, apparently, were
Enki (Êa), Damgal-nunna (Damkina), his consort, Asari-lu-duga
(Merodach), In-ab (or Ineš), the pilot of Êridu (Êa's city), and
Nin-igi-nagar-sir, "the great architect of heaven":--

  "May the ship before thee bring fertility,
  May the ship after thee bring joy,
  In thy heart may it make joy of heart . . . ."

Êa was the god of fertility, hence this ending to the poetical
description of the ship of Êa.


                                 Bel.

The deity who is mentioned next in order in the list given above is
the "older Bel," so called to distinguish him from Bel-Merodach. His
principal names were /Mullil/ (dialectic) or /En-lilla/[*] (standard
speech), the /Illinos/ of Damascius. His name is generally translated
"lord of mist," so-called as god of the underworld, his consort being
/Gašan-lil/ or /Nan-lilla/, "the lady of the mist," in Semitic
Babylonian /Bêltu/, "the Lady," par excellence. Bel, whose name means
"the lord," was so called because he was regarded as chief of the
gods. As there was considerable confusion in consequence of the title
Bel having been given to Merodach, Tiglath-pileser I. (about 1200
B.C.) refers to him as the "older Bel" in describing the temple which
he built for him at Aššur. Numerous names of men compounded with his
occur until the latest times, implying that, though the favourite god
was Merodach, the worship of Bel was not forgotten, even at Babylon--
that he should have been adored at his own city, Niffur, and at Dur-
Kuri-galzu, where Kuri-galzu I. built a temple for "Bel, the lord of
the lands," was naturally to be expected. Being, like Êa, a god of the
earth, he is regarded as having formed a trinity with Anu, the god of
heaven, and Êa, the god of the deep, and prayer to these three was as
good as invoking all the gods of the universe. Classification of the
gods according to the domain of their power would naturally take place
in a religious system in which they were all identified with each
other, and this classification indicates, as Jastrow says, a deep
knowledge of the powers of nature, and a more than average
intelligence among the Babylonians--indeed, he holds it as a proof
that, at the period of the older empire, there were schools and
students who had devoted themselves to religious speculation upon this
point. He also conjectures that the third commandment of the Law of
Moses was directed against this doctrine held by the Babylonians.

[*] Ordinarily pronounced /Illila/, as certain glosses and Damascius's
    /Illinos/ (for /Illilos/) show.


                               Beltis.

This goddess was properly only the spouse of the older Bel, but as
/Bêltu/, her Babylonian name, simply meant "lady" in general (just as
/Bêl/ or /bêlu/ meant "lord"), it became a title which could be given
to any goddess, and was in fact borne by Zer-panîtum, Ištar, Nanaa,
and others. It was therefore often needful to add the name of the city
over which the special /Bêltu/ presided, in order to make clear which
of them was meant. Besides being the title of the spouse of the older
Bel, having her earthly seat with him in Niffur and other less
important shrines, the Assyrians sometimes name Bêltu the spouse of
Aššur, their national god, suggesting an identification, in the minds
of the priests, with that deity.


                        Ênu-rêštu or Nirig.[*]

Whether /Ênu-rêštu/ be a translation of /Nirig/ or not, is uncertain,
but not improbable, the meaning being "primeval lord," or something
similar, and "lord" that of the first element, /ni/, in the Sumerian
form. In support of this reading and rendering may be quoted the fact,
that one of the descriptions of this divinity is /ašsarid îlani
âhê-šu/, "the eldest of the gods his brothers." It is noteworthy that
this deity was a special favourite among the Assyrians, many of whose
kings, to say nothing of private persons, bore his name as a component
part of theirs. In the bilingual poem entitled /Ana-kime gimma/
("Formed like Anu"), he is described as being the son of Bel (hence
his appearance after Bel in the list printed above), and in the
likeness of Anu, for which reason, perhaps, his divinity is called
"Anuship." Beginning with words praising him, it seems to refer to his
attitude towards the gods of hostile lands, against whom, apparently,
he rode in a chariot of the sacred lapis-lazuli. Anu having endowed
him with terrible glory, the gods of the earth feared to attack him,
and his onrush was as that of a storm-flood. By the command of Bel,
his course was directed towards Ê-kur, the temple of Bel at Niffur.
Here he was met by Nusku, the supreme messenger of Bel, who, with
words of respect and of praise, asks him not to disturb the god Bel,
his father, in his seat, nor make the gods of the earth tremble in
Upšukennaku (the heavenly festival-hall of the gods), and offers him a
gift.[†] It will thus be seen that Ênu-rêštu was a rival to the older
Bel, whose temple was the great tower in stages called Ê-kura, in
which, in all probability, Ê-šu-me-du, the shrine of Ênu-rêštu, was
likewise situated. The inscriptions call him "god of war," though,
unlike Nergal, he was not at the same time god of disease and
pestilence. To all appearance he was the god of the various kinds of
stones, of which another legend states that he "determined their
fate." He was "the hero, whose net overthrows the enemy, who summons
his army to plunder the hostile land, the royal son who caused his
father to bow down to him from afar." "The son who sat not with the
nurse, and eschewed(?) the strength of milk," "the offspring who did
not know his father." "He rode over the mountains and scattered
seed--unanimously the plants proclaimed his name to their dominion,
among them like a great wild bull he raises his horns."

[*] /Ênu-rêštu/ is the reading which I have adopted as the Semitic
    Babylonian equivalent of the name of this divinity, in consequence
    of the Aramaic transcription given by certain contract-tablets
    discovered by the American expedition to Niffer, and published by
    Prof. Clay of Philadelphia.

[†] The result of this request is not known, in consequence of the
    defective state of the tablets.

Many other interesting descriptions of the deity Nirig (generally read
Nin-ip) occur, and show, with those quoted here, that his story was
one of more than ordinary interest.


                                Nusku.

This deity was especially invoked by the Assyrian kings, but was in no
wise exclusively Assyrian, as is shown by the fact that his name
occurs in many Babylonian inscriptions. He was the great messenger of
the gods, and is variously given as "the offspring of the abyss, the
creation of Êa," and "the likeness of his father, the first-born of
Bel." As Gibil, the fire-god, has likewise the same diverse parentage,
it is regarded as likely that these two gods were identical. Nusku was
the god whose command is supreme, the counsellor of the great gods,
the protector of the Igigi (the gods of the heavens), the great and
powerful one, the glorious day, the burning one, the founder of
cities, the renewer of sanctuaries, the provider of feasts for all the
Igigi, without whom no feast took place in Ê-kura. Like Nebo, he bore
the glorious spectre, and it was said of him that he attacked mightily
in battle. Without him the sun-god, the judge, could not give
judgment.

All this points to the probability, that Nusku may not have been the
fire-god, but the brother of the fire-god, i.e. either flame, or the
light of fire. The sun-god, without light, could not see, and
therefore could not give judgment: no feast could be prepared without
fire and its flame. As the evidence of the presence of the shining
orbs in the heavens--the light of their fires--he was the messenger of
the gods, and was honoured accordingly. From this idea, too, he became
their messenger in general, especially of Bel-Merodach, the younger
Bel, whose requests he carried to the god Êa in the Deep. In one
inscription he is identified with Nirig or Ênu-rêštu, who is described
above.


                              Merodach.

Concerning this god, and how he arose to the position of king of all
the gods of heaven, has been fully shown in chapter III. Though there
is but little in his attributes to indicate any connection with Šamaš,
there is hardly any doubt that he was originally a sun-god, as is
shown by the etymology of his name. The form, as it has been handed
down to us, is somewhat shortened, the original pronunciation having
been /Amar-uduk/, "the young steer of day," a name which suggests that
he was the morning sun. Of the four names given at the end of chapter
III., two--"lord of Babylon," and "lord god of heaven and earth,"--may
be regarded as expressing his more well-known attributes. /En-ab-šar-
u/, however, is a provisional, though not impossible, reading and
rendering, and if correct, the "36,000 wild bulls" would be a
metaphorical way of speaking of "the 36,000 heroes," probably meaning
the gods of heaven in all their grades. The signification of /En-
bilulu/ is unknown. Like most of the other gods of the Babylonian
pantheon, however, Merodach had many other names, among which may be
mentioned /Asari/, which has been compared with the Egyptian Osiris,
/Asari-lu-duga/, "/Asari/ who is good," compared with Osiris Unnefer;
/Namtila/, "life", /Tutu/, "begetter (of the gods), renewer (of the
gods)," /Šar-azaga/, "the glorious incantation," /Mu-azaga/, "the
glorious charm," and many others. The last two refer to his being the
god who, by his kindness, obtained from his father Êa, dwelling in the
abyss, those charms and incantations which benefited mankind, and
restored the sick to health. In this connection, a frequent title
given to him is "the merciful one," but most merciful was he in that
he spared the lives of the gods who, having sided with Taiwath, were
his enemies, as is related in the tablet of the fifty-one names. In
connection with the fight he bore also the names, "annihilator of the
enemy," "rooter out of all evil," "troubler of the evil ones," "life
of the whole of the gods." From these names it is clear that Merodach,
in defeating Tiawath, annihilated, at the same time, the spirit of
evil, Satan, the accuser, of which she was, probably, the Babylonian
type. But unlike the Saviour in the Christian creed, he saved not only
man, at that time uncreated, but the gods of heaven also. As "king of
the heavens," he was identified with the largest of the planets,
Jupiter, as well as with other heavenly bodies. Traversing the sky in
great zigzags, Jupiter seemed to the Babylonians to superintend the
stars, and this was regarded as emblematic of Merodach shepherding
them--"pasturing the gods like sheep," as the tablet has it.

A long list of gods gives as it were the court of Merodach, held in
what was apparently a heavenly /Ê-sagila/, and among the spiritual
beings mentioned are /Minâ-îkul-bêli/ and /Minâ-ištî-bêli/, "what my
lord has eaten," and "what has my lord drunk," /Nadin-mê-gati/, "he
who gives water for the hands," also the two door-keepers, and the
four dogs of Merodach, wherein people are inclined to see the four
satellites of Jupiter, which, it is thought, were probably visible to
certain of the more sharp-sighted stargazers of ancient Babylonia.
These dogs were called /Ukkumu/, /Akkulu/, /Ikšsuda/, and /Iltebu/,
"Seizer," "Eater," "Grasper," and "Holder." Images of these beings
were probably kept in the temple of Ê-sagila at Babylon.


                             Zer-panîtum.

This was the name of the consort of Merodach, and is generally read
Sarp(b)anitum--a transcription which is against the native orthography
and etymology, namely, "seed-creatress" (Zer-banîtum). The meaning
attributed to this word is partly confirmed by another name which
Lehmann has pointed out that she possessed, namely, /Erua/ or /Aru'a/,
who, in an inscription of Antiochus Soter (280-260 B.C.) is called
"the queen who produces birth," but more especially by the
circumstance, that she must be identical with Aruru, who created the
seed of mankind along with Merodach. Why she was called "the lady of
the abyss," and elsewhere "the voice of the abyss" (/Me-abzu/) is not
known. Zer-panîtum was no mere reflection of Merodach, but one of the
most important goddesses in the Babylonian pantheon. The tendency of
scholars has been to identify her with the moon, Merodach being a
solar deity and the meaning "silvery"--/Sarpanitum/, from /sarpu/, one
of the words for "silver," was regarded as supporting this idea. She
was identified with the Elamite goddess named Elagu, and with the
Lahamum of the island of Bahrein, the Babylonian Tilmun.


                          Nebo and Tašmêtum.

As "the teacher" and "the hearer" these were among the most popular of
the deities of Babylonia and Assyria. Nebo (in Semitic Babylonian
Nabû) was worshipped at the temple-tower known as Ê-zida, "the ever-
lasting house," at Borsippa, now the Birs Nimroud, traditionally
regarded as the site of the Tower of Babel, though that title, as has
already been shown, would best suit the similar structure known as
Ê-sagila, "the house of the high head," in Babylon itself. In
composition with men's names, this deity occurs more than any other,
even including Merodach himself--a clear indication of the estimation
in which the Babylonians and Assyrians held the possession of
knowledge. The character with which his name is written means, with
the pronunciation of /ak/, "to make," "to create," "to receive," "to
proclaim," and with the pronunciation of /me/, "to be wise," "wisdom,"
"open of ear," "broad of ear," and "to make, of a house," the last
probably referring to the design rather than to the actual building.
Under the name of /Dim-šara/ he was "the creator of the writing of the
scribes," as /Ni-zu/, "the god who knows" (/zu/, "to know"), as
/Mermer/, "the speeder(?) of the command of the gods"--on the Sumerian
side indicating some connection with Addu or Rimmon, the thunderer,
and on the Semitic side with Ênu-rêštu, who was one of the gods'
messengers. A small fragment in the British Museum gave his attributes
as god of the various cities of Babylonia, but unfortunately their
names are lost or incomplete. From what remains, however, we see that
Nebo was god of ditching(?), commerce(?), granaries(?), fasting(?),
and food; it was he who overthrew the land of the enemy, and who
protected planting; and, lastly, he was god of Borsippa.

The worship of Nebo was not always as popular as it became in the
later days of the Babylonian empire and after its fall, and Jastrow is
of opinion that Hammurabi intentionally ignored this deity, giving the
preference to Merodach, though he did not suppress the worship. Why
this should have taken place is not by any means certain, for Nebo was
a deity adored far and wide, as may be gathered from the fact that
there was a mountain bearing his name in Moab, upon which Moses--also
an "announcer," adds Jastrow--died. Besides the mountain, there was a
city in Moab so named, and another in Judæa. That it was the
Babylonian Nebo originally is implied by the form--the Hebrew
corresponding word is /nabi/.

How old the worship of Tašmêtum, his consort, is, is doubtful, but her
name first occurs in a date of the reign of Hammurabi. Details
concerning her attributes are rare, and Jastrow regards this goddess
as the result of Babylonian religious speculations. It is noteworthy
that her worship appears more especially in later times, but it may be
doubted whether it is a product of those late times, especially when
we bear in mind the remarkable seal-impression on an early tablet of
3500-4500 B.C., belonging to Lord Amherst of Hackney, in which we see
a male figure with wide-open mouth seizing a stag by his horns, and a
female figure with no mouth at all, but with very prominent ears,
holding a bull in a similar manner. Here we have the "teacher" and the
"hearer" personified in a very remarkable manner, and it may well be
that this primitive picture shows the idea then prevailing with regard
to these two deities. It is to be noted that the name of Tašmêtum has
a Sumerian equivalent, namely, /Kurnun/, and that the ideograph by
which it is represented is one whose general meaning seems to be "to
bind," perhaps with the additional signification of "to accomplish,"
in which case "she who hears" would also be "she who obeys."


                        Šamaš and his consort.

At all times the worship of the sun in Babylonia and Assyria was
exceedingly popular, as, indeed, was to be expected from his
importance as the greatest of the heavenly bodies and the brightest,
without whose help men could not live, and it is an exceedingly
noteworthy fact that this deity did not become, like Ra in Egypt, the
head of the pantheon. This place was reserved for Merodach, also a
sun-god, but possessing attributes of a far wider scope. Šamaš is
mentioned as early as the reign of Ê-anna-tum, whose date is set at
about 4200 B.C., and at this period his Semitic name does not,
naturally, occur, the character used being /Utu/, or, in its longer
form, /Utuki/.

It is worthy of note that, in consequence of the Babylonian idea of
evolution in the creation of the world, less perfect beings brought
forth those which were more perfect, and the sun was therefore the
offspring of Nannara or Sin, the moon. In accordance with the same
idea, the day, with the Semites, began with the evening, the time when
the moon became visible, and thus becomes the offspring of the night.
In the inscriptions Šamaš is described as "the light of things above
and things below, the illuminator of the regions," "the supreme judge
of heaven and earth," "the lord of living creatures, the gracious one
of the lands." Dawning in the foundation of the sky, he opened the
locks and threw wide the gates of the high heavens, and raised his
head, covering heaven and earth with his splendour. He was the
constantly righteous in heaven, the truth within the ears of the
lands, the god knowing justice and injustice, righteousness he
supported upon his shoulders, unrighteousness he burst asunder like a
leather bond, etc. It will thus be seen, that the sun-god was the
great god of judgment and justice--indeed, he is constantly alluded to
as "the judge," the reason in all probability being, that as the sun
shines upon the earth all day long, and his light penetrates
everywhere, he was regarded as the god who knew and investigated
everything, and was therefore best in a position to judge aright, and
deliver a just decision. It is for this reason that his image appears
at the head of the stele inscribed with Hammurabi's laws, and legal
ceremonies were performed within the precincts of his temples. The
chief seats of his worship were the great temples called Ê-babbara,
"the house of great light," in the cities of Larsa and Sippar.

The consort of Šamaš was Aa, whose chief seat was at Sippar, side by
side with Šamaš. Though only a weak reflex of the sun-god, her worship
was exceedingly ancient, being mentioned in an inscription of
Man-ištusu, who is regarded as having reigned before Sargon of Agadé.
From the fact that, in one of the lists, she has names formed by
reduplicating the name of the sun-god, /Utu/, she would seem once to
have been identical with him, in which case it may be supposed that
she personified the setting sun--"the double sun" from the magnified
disc which he presents at sunset, when, according to a hymn to the
setting sun sung at the temple at Borsippa, Aa, in the Sumerian line
Kur-nirda, was accustomed to go to receive him. According to the list
referred to above, Aa, with the name of Burida in Sumerian, was more
especially the consort of Ša-zu, "him who knows the heart," one of the
names of Merodach, who was probably the morning sun, and therefore the
exact counterpart of the sun at evening.

Besides Šamaš and Utu, the latter his ordinary Sumerian name, the sun-
god had several other non-Semitic names, including /Gišnu/,[*] "the
light," /Ma-banda-anna/, "the bark of heaven," /U-ê/, "the rising
sun," /Mitra/, apparently the Persian Mithra; /Ume-šimaš/ and Nahunda,
Elamite names, and Sahi, the Kassite name of the sun. He also
sometimes bears the names of his attendants Kittu and Mêšaru, "Truth"
and "Righteousness," who guided him upon his path as judge of the
earth.

[*] It is the group expressing this word which is used for Šamaš in
    the name of Šamaš-šum-ukîn (Saosduchinos), the brother of Aššur-
    bani-âpli (Assurbanipal). The Greek equivalent implies the
    pronunciation /Šawaš/, as well as /Šamaš/.


                          Tammuz and Ištar.

The date of the rise of the myth of Tammuz is uncertain, but as the
name of this god is found on tablets of the time of Lugal-anda and
Uru-ka-gina (about 3500 B.C.), it can hardly be of later date than
4000 B.C., and may be much earlier. As he is repeatedly called "the
shepherd," and had a domain where he pastured his flock, Professor
Sayce sees in Tammuz "Daonus or Daos, the shepherd of Pantibibla,"
who, according to Berosus, ruled in Babylonia for 10 /sari/, or 36,000
years, and was the sixth king of the mythical period. According to the
classic story, the mother of Tammuz had unnatural intercourse with her
own father, being urged thereto by Aphrodite whom she had offended,
and who had decided thus to avenge herself. Being pursued by her
father, who wished to kill her for this crime, she prayed to the gods,
and was turned into a tree, from whose trunk Adonis was afterwards
born. Aphrodite was so charmed with the infant that, placing him in a
chest, she gave him into the care of Persephone, who, however, when
she discovered what a treasure she had in her keeping, refused to part
with him again. Zeus was appealed to, and decided that for four months
in the year Adonis should be left to himself, four should be spent
with Aphrodite, and four with Persephone, and six with Aphrodite on
earth. He was afterwards slain, whilst hunting, by a wild boar.

Nothing has come down to us as yet concerning this legend except the
incident of his dwelling in Hades, whither Ištar, the Babylonian
Venus, went in search of him. It is not by any means unlikely,
however, that the whole story existed in Babylonia, and thence spread
to Phœnicia, and afterwards to Greece. In Phœnicia it was adapted to
the physical conditions of the country, and the place of Tammuz's
encounter with the boar was said to be the mountains of Lebanon,
whilst the river named after him, Adonis (now the Nahr Ibrahim), which
ran red with the earth washed down by the autumn rains, was said to be
so coloured in consequence of being mingled with his blood. The
descent of Tammuz to the underworld, typified by the flowing down of
the earth-laden waters of the rivers to the sea, was not only
celebrated by the Phœnicians, but also by the Babylonians, who had at
least two series of lamentations which were used on this occasion, and
were probably the originals of those chanted by the Hebrew women in
the time of Ezekiel (about 597 B.C.). Whilst on earth, he was the one
who nourished the ewe and her lamb, the goat and her kid, and also
caused them to be slain--probably in sacrifice. "He has gone, he has
gone to the bosom of the earth," the mourners cried, "he will make
plenty to overflow for the land of the dead, for its lamentations for
the day of his fall, in the unpropitious month of his year." There was
also lamentation for the cessation of the growth of vegetation, and
one of these hymns, after addressing him as the shepherd and husband
of Ištar, "lord of the underworld," and "lord of the shepherd's seat,"
goes on to liken him to a germ which has not absorbed water in the
furrow, whose bud has not blossomed in the meadow; to the sapling
which has not been planted by the watercourse, and to the sapling
whose root has been removed. In the "Lamentations" in the Manchester
Museum, Ištar, or one of her devotees, seems to call for Tammuz,
saying, "Return, my husband," as she makes her way to the region of
gloom in quest of him. Ereš-ê-gala, "the lady of the great house"
(Persephone), is also referred to, and the text seems to imply that
Ištar entered her domain in spite of her. In this text other names are
given to him, namely, /Tumu-giba/, "son of the flute," /Ama-elaggi/,
and /Ši-umunnagi/, "life of the people."

The reference to sheep and goats in the British Museum fragment
recalls the fact that in an incantation for purification the person
using it is told to get the milk of a yellow goat which has been
brought forth in the sheep-fold of Tammuz, recalling the flocks of the
Greek sun-god Helios. These were the clouds illuminated by the sun,
which were likened to sheep--indeed, one of the early Sumerian
expressions for "fleece" was "sheep of the sky." The name of Tammuz in
Sumerian is Dumu-zi, or in its rare fullest form, Dumu-zida, meaning
"true" or "faithful son." There is probably some legend attached to
this which is at present unknown.

In all probability Ištar, the spouse of Tammuz, is best known from her
descent into Hades in quest of him when with Persephone (Ereš-ki-gal)
in the underworld. In this she had to pass through seven gates, and an
article of clothing was taken from her at each, until she arrived in
the underworld quite naked, typifying the teaching, that man can take
nothing away with him when he departs this life. During her absence,
things naturally began to go wrong upon the earth, and the gods were
obliged to intervene, and demand her release, which was ultimately
granted, and at each gate, as she returned, the adornments which she
had left were given back to her. It is uncertain whether the husband
whom she sought to release was set free, but the end of the
inscription seems to imply that Ištar was successful in her mission.

In this story she typifies the faithful wife, but other legends show
another side of her character, as in that of Gilgameš, ruler of her
city Erech, to whom she makes love. Gilgameš, however, knowing the
character of the divine queen of his city too well, reproaches her
with her treatment of her husband and her other lovers--Tammuz, to
whom, from year to year, she caused bitter weeping; the bright
coloured Allala bird, whom she smote and broke his wings; the lion
perfect in strength, in whom she cut wounds "by sevens"; the horse
glorious in war, to whom she caused hardship and distress, and to his
mother Silili bitter weeping; the shepherd who provided for her things
which she liked, whom she smote and changed to a jackal; Išullanu, her
father's gardener, whom she tried, apparently, to poison, but failing,
she smote him, and changed him to a statue(?). On being thus reminded
of her misdeeds, Ištar was naturally angry, and, ascending to heaven,
complained to her father Anu and her mother Anatu, the result being,
that a divine bull was sent against Gilgameš and Enki-du, his friend
and helper. The bull, however, was killed, and a portion of the animal
having been cut off, Enki-du threw it at the goddess, saying at the
same time that, if he could only get hold of her, he would treat her
similarly. Apparently Ištar recognised that there was nothing further
to be done in the matter, so, gathering the hand-maidens, pleasure-
women and whores, in their presence she wept over the portion of the
divine bull which had been thrown at her.

The worship of Ištar, she being the goddess of love and war, was
considerably more popular than that of her spouse, Tammuz, who, as
among the western Semitic nations, was adored rather by the women than
the men. Her worship was in all probability of equal antiquity, and
branched out, so to say, in several directions, as may be judged by
her many names, each of which had a tendency to become a distinct
personality. Thus the syllabaries give the character which represents
her name as having also been pronounced /Innanna/, /Ennen/, and /Nin/,
whilst a not uncommon name in other inscriptions is /Ama-Innanna/,
"mother Ištar." The principal seat of her worship in Babylonia was at
Erech, and in Assyria at Nineveh--also at Arbela, and many other
places. She was also honoured (at Erech and elsewhere) under the
Elamite names of Tišpak and Šušinak, "the Susian goddess."


                                Nina.

From the name /Nin/, which Ištar bore, there is hardly any doubt that
she acquired the identification with Nina, which is provable as early
as the time of the Lagašite kings, Lugal-anda and Uru-ka-gina. As
identified with Aruru, the goddess who helped Merodach to create
mankind, Ištar was also regarded as the mother of all, and in the
Babylonian story of the Flood, she is made to say that she had
begotten man, but like "the sons of the fishes," he filled the sea.
Nina, then, as another form of Ištar, was a goddess of creation,
typified in the teeming life of the ocean, and her name is written
with a character standing for a house or receptacle, with the sign for
"fish" within. Her earliest seat was the city of Nina in southern
Babylonia, from which place, in all probability, colonists went
northwards, and founded another shrine at Nineveh in Assyria, which
afterwards became the great centre of her worship, and on this account
the city was called after her Ninaa or Ninua. As their tutelary
goddess, the fishermen in the neighbourhood of the Babylonian Nina and
Lagaš were accustomed to make to her, as well as to Innanna or Ištar,
large offerings of fish.

As the masculine deities had feminine forms, so it is not by any means
improbable that the goddesses had masculine forms, and if that be the
case, we may suppose that it was a masculine counterpart of Nina who
founded Nineveh, which, as is well known, is attributed to Ninos, the
same name as Nina with the Greek masculine termination.


                              Nin-Gursu.

This deity is principally of importance in connection with the ancient
Babylonian state of Lagaš, the home of an old and important line of
kings and viceroys, among the latter being the celebrated Gudea, whose
statues and inscribed cylinders now adorn the Babylonian galleries of
the Louvre at Paris. His name means "Lord of Girsu," which was
probably one of the suburbs, and the oldest part, of Lagaš. This deity
was son of En-lila or Bêl, and was identified with Nirig or Ênu-rêštu.
To all appearance he was a sun-deity. The dialectic form of his name
was /U-Mersi/, of which a variant, /En-Mersi/, occurs in an
incantation published in the fourth volume of the /Cuneiform
Inscriptions of Western Asia/, pl. 27, where, for the Sumerian "Take a
white kid of En-Mersi," the Semitic translation is "of Tammuz,"
showing that he was identified with the latter god. In the second
volume of the same work Nin-Girsu is given as the pronunciation of the
name of the god of agriculturalists, confirming this identification,
Tammuz being also god of agriculture.


                                 Bau.

This goddess at all times played a prominent part in ancient
Babylonian religion, especially with the rulers before the dynasty of
Hammurabi. She was the "mother" of Lagaš, and her temple was at
Uru-azaga, a district of Lagaš, the chief city of Nin-Girsu, whose
spouse she was. Like Nin-Girsu, she planted (not only grain and
vegetation, but also the seed of men). In her character of the goddess
who gave life to men, and healed their bodies in sickness, she was
identified with Gula, one of those titles is "the lady saving from
death". Ga-tum-duga, whose name probably means "making and producing
good," was also exceedingly popular in ancient times, and though
identified with Bau, is regarded by Jastrow has having been originally
distinct from her.


                        Ereš-ki-gal or Allatu.

As the prototype of Persephone, this goddess is one of much importance
for comparative mythology, and there is a legend concerning her of
considerable interest. The text is one of those found at Tel-el-
Armana, in Egypt, and states that the gods once made a feast, and sent
to Ereš-ki-gal, saying that, though they could go down to her, she
could not ascend to them, and asking her to send a messenger to fetch
away the food destined for her. This she did, and all the gods stood
up to receive her messenger, except one, who seems to have withheld
this token of respect. The messenger, when he returned, apparently
related to Ereš-ki-gal what had happened, and angered thereat, she
sent him back to the presence of the gods, asking for the delinquent
to be delivered to her, that she might kill him. The gods then
discussed the question of death with the messenger, and told him to
take to his mistress the god who had not stood up in his presence.
When the gods were brought together, that the culprit might be
recognised, one of them remained in the background, and on the
messenger asking who it was who did not stand up, it was found to be
Nerigal. This god was duly sent, but was not at all inclined to be
submissive, for instead of killing him, as she had threatened, Ereš-
ki-gal found herself seized by the hair and dragged from her throne,
whilst the death-dealing god made ready to cut off her head. "Do not
kill me, my brother, let me speak to thee," she cried, and on his
loosing his hold upon her hair, she continued, "thou shalt be my
husband, and I will be thy wife--I will cause you to take dominion in
the wide earth. I will place the tablet of wisdom in thine hand--thou
shalt be lord, I will be lady." Nerigal thereupon took her, kissed
her, and wiped away her tears, saying, "Whatever thou hast asked me
for months past now receives assent."

Ereš-ki-gal did not treat her rival in the affections of Tammuz so
gently when Ištar descended to Hades in search of the "husband of her
youth." According to the story, not only was Ištar deprived of her
garments and ornaments, but by the orders of Ereš-ki-gal, Namtar smote
her with disease in all her members. It was not until the gods
intervened that Ištar was set free. The meaning of her name is "lady
of the great region," a description which is supposed to apply to
Hades, and of which a variant, Ereš-ki-gal, "lady of the great house,"
occurs in the Hymns to Tammuz in the Manchester Museum.


                               Nergal.

This name is supposed to mean "lord of the great habitation," which
would be a parallel to that of his spouse Ereš-ki-gal. He was the
ruler of Hades, and at the same time god of war and of disease and
pestilence. As warrior, he naturally fought on the side of those who
worshipped him, as in the phrase which describes him as "the warrior,
the fierce storm-flood overthrowing the land of the enemy." As pointed
out by Jastrow, he differs from Nirig, who was also a god of war, in
that he symbolises, as god of disease and death, the misery and
destruction which accompany the strife of nations. It is in
consequence of this side of his character that he appears also as god
of fire, the destroying element, and Jensen says that Nerigal was god
of the midday or of the summer sun, and therefore of all the
misfortunes caused by an excess of his heat.

The chief centre of his worship was Cuthah (/Kutû/, Sumerian /Gudua/)
near Babylon, now represented by the mounds of Tel Ibrahim. The
identity with the Greek Aries and the Roman Mars is proved by the fact
that his planet was /Muštabarrû-mûtanu/, "the death-spreader," which
is probably the name of Mars in Semitic Babylonian.


                               Amurru.

Although this is not by any means a frequent name among the deities
worshipped in Babylonia, it is worthy of notice on account of its
bearing upon the date of the compilation of the tablet which has been
taken as a basis of this list of gods. He was known as "Lord of the
mountains," and his worship became very popular during the period of
the dynasty to which Hammurabi belonged--say from 2200 to 1937 B.C.,
when Amurru was much combined with the names of men, and is found both
on tablets and cylinder-seals. The ideographic manner of writing it is
/Mar-tu/, a word that is used for /Amurru/, the land of the Amorites,
which stood for the West in general. Amorites had entered Babylonia in
considerable numbers during this period, so that there is but little
doubt that his popularity was largely due to their influence, and the
tablet containing these names was probably drawn up, or at least had
the Semitic equivalents added, towards the beginning of that period.


                           Sin or Nannara.

The cult of the moon-god was one of the most popular in Babylonia, the
chief seat of his worship being at Uru (now Muqayyar) the Biblical Ur
of the Chaldees. The origin of the name Sin is unknown, but it is
thought that it may be a corruption of Zu-ena, "knowledge-lord," as
the compound ideograph expressing his name may be read and translated.
Besides this compound ideograph, the name of the god Sin was also
expressed by the character for "30," provided with the prefix of
divinity, an ideograph which is due to the thirty days of the month,
and is thought to be of late date. With regard to Nannar, Jastrow
explains it as being for Narnar, and renders it "light-producer." In a
long hymn to this god he is described in many lines as "the lord,
prince of the gods, who in heaven alone is supreme," and as "father
Nannar." Among his other descriptive titles are "great Anu" (Sum. /ana
gale/, Semitic Bab. /Anu rabû/)--another instance of the
identification of two deities. He was also "lord of Ur," "lord of the
temple Gišnu-gala," "lord of the shining crown," etc. He is also said
to be "the mighty steer whose horns are strong, whose limbs are
perfect, who is bearded with a beard of lapis-stone,[*] who is filled
with beauty and fullness (of splendour)."

[*] Probably of the colour of lapis only, not made of the stone
    itself.

Besides Babylonia and Assyria, he was also worshipped in other parts
of the Semitic east, especially at Harran, to which city Abraham
migrated, scholars say, in consequence of the patron-deity being the
same as at Ur of the Chaldees, where he had passed the earlier years
of his life. The Mountain of Sinai and the Desert of Sin, both bear
his name.

According to king Dungi (about 2700 B.C.), the spouse of Sin or
Nannara was Nin-Uruwa, "the lady of Ur." Sargon of Assyria (722-705
B.C.) calls her Nin-gala.


                           Addu or Rammanu.

The numerous names which Hadad bears in the inscriptions, both non-
Semitic and Semitic, testify to the popularity which this god enjoyed
at all times in Babylonia. Among his non-Semitic names may be
mentioned Mer, Mermer, Muru, all, it may be imagined, imitative. Addu
is explained as being his name in the Amorite language, and a variant
form, apparently, which has lost its first syllable, namely, Dadu,
also appears--the Assyrians seem always to have used the
terminationless form of Addu, namely, Adad. In all probability Addu,
Adad, and Dadu are derived from the West Semitic Hadad, but the other
name, Rammanu, is native Babylonian, and cognate with Rimmon, which is
thus shown by the Babylonian form to mean "the thunderer," or
something similar. He was the god of winds, storms, and rain, feared
on account of the former, and worshipped, and his favour sought, on
account of the last. In his name Birqu, he appears as the god of
lightning, and Jastrow is of opinion, that he is sometimes associated
on that account with Šamaš, both of them being (although in different
degrees) gods of light, and this is confirmed by the fact that, in
common with the sun-god, he was called "god of justice." In the
Assyrian inscriptions he appears as a god of war, and the kings
constantly compare the destruction which their armies had wrought with
that of "Adad the inundator." For them he was "the mighty one,
inundating the regions of the enemy, lands and houses," and was prayed
to strike the land of the person who showed hostility to the Assyrian
king, with evil-working lightning, to throw want, famine, drought, and
corpses therein, to order that he should not live one day longer, and
to destroy his name and his seed in the land.

The original seat of his worship was Muru in South Babylonia, to which
the patesi of Girsu in the time of Ibi-Sin sent grain as an offering.
Its site is unknown. Other places (or are they other names of the
same?) where he was worshipped were Ennigi and Kakru. The consort of
Addu was Šala, whose worship was likewise very popular, and to whom
there were temples, not only in Babylonia and Assyria, but also in
Elam, seemingly always in connection with Addu.


                                Aššur.

In all the deities treated of above, we see the chief gods of the
Babylonian and Assyrian pantheon, which were worshipped by both
peoples extensively, none of them being specifically Assyrian, though
worshipped by the Assyrians. There was one deity, however, whose name
will not be found in the Babylonian lists of gods, namely, Aššur, the
national god of Assyria, who was worshipped in the city of Aššur, the
old capital of the country.

From this circumstance, it may be regarded as certain, that Aššur was
the local god of the city whose name he bore, and that he attained to
the position of chief god of the Assyrian pantheon in the same way as
Merodach became king of the gods in Babylonia--namely, because Aššur
was the capital of the country. His acceptance as chief divinity,
however, was much more general than that of Merodach, as temples to
him were to be found all over the Assyrian kingdom--a circumstance
which was probably due to Assyria being more closely united in itself
than Babylonia, causing his name to arouse patriotic feelings wherever
it might be referred to. This was probably partly due to the fact,
that the king in Assyria was more the representative of the god than
in Babylonia, and that the god followed him on warlike expeditions,
and when engaged in religious ceremonies--indeed, it is not by any
means improbable that he was thought to follow him wherever he went.
On the sculptures he is seen accompanying him in the form of a circle
provided with wings, in which is shown sometimes a full-length figure
of the god in human form, sometimes the upper part only, facing
towards and drawing his bow against the foe. In consequence of its
general appearance, the image of the god has been likened to the sun
in eclipse, the far-stretching wings being thought to resemble the
long streamers visible at the moment of totality, and it must be
admitted as probable that this may have given the idea of the symbol
shown on the sculptures. As a sun-god, and at the same time not the
god Šamaš, he resembled the Babylonian Merodach, and was possibly
identified with him, especially as, in at least one text, Bêltu
(Bêltis) is described as his consort, which would possibly identify
Aššur's spouse with Zer-panîtum. The original form of his name would
seem to have been Aušar, "water-field," probably from the tract where
the city of Aššur was built. His identification with Merodach, if that
was ever accepted, may have been due to the likeness of the word to
Asari, one of that deity's names. The pronunciation Aššur, however,
seems to have led to a comparison with the Anšar of the first tablet
of the Creation-story, though it may seem strange that the Assyrians
should have thought that their patron-god was a deity symbolising the
"host of heaven." Nevertheless, the Greek transcription of Anšar,
namely, /Assoros/, given by Damascius, certainly strengthens the
indications of the ideograph in this matter. Delitzsch regards the
word Aššur, or Ašur, as he reads it, as meaning "holy," and quotes a
list of the gods of the city of Nineveh, where the word Aššur occurs
three times, suggesting the exclamation "holy, holy, holy," or "the
holy, holy, holy one." In all probability, however, the repetition of
the name three times simply means that there were three temples
dedicated to Aššur in the cities in question.[*] Jastrow agrees with
Delitzsch in regarding Ašur as another form of Ašir (found in early
Cappadocian names), but he translates it rather as "overseer" or
"guardian" of the land and the people--the terminationless form of
/aširu/, which has this meaning, and is applied to Merodach.

[*] Or there may have been three shrines to Aššur in each temple
    referred to.

As the use of the characters /An-šar/ for the god Aššur only appears
at a late date (Jastrow says the eighth century B.C.), this would seem
to have been the work of the scribes, who wished to read into the name
the earlier signification of Anšar, "the host of heaven," an
explanation fully in accord with Jastrow's reasonings with regard to
the nature of the deity. As he represented no personification or power
of nature, he says, but the general protecting spirit of the land, the
king, the army, and the people, the capital of the country could be
transferred from Aššur to Calah, from there back to Aššur, and finally
to Nineveh, without affecting the position of the protecting god of
the land in any way. He needed no temple--though such things were
erected to him--he had no need to fear that he should suffer in esteem
by the preference for some other god. As the embodiment of the spirit
of the Assyrian people the personal side of his being remained to a
certain extent in the background. If he was the "host of heaven," all
the deities might be regarded as having their being in him.

Such was the chief deity of the Assyrians--a national god, grafted on
to, but always distinct from, the rest of the pantheon, which, as has
been shown, was of Babylonian origin, and always maintained the
characteristics and stamp of its origin.

The spouse of Aššur does not appear in the historical texts, and her
mention elsewhere under the title of Bêltu, "the lady," does not allow
of any identification being made. In one inscription, however,
Aššuritu is called the goddess, and Aššur the god, of the star Sib-zi-
anna, identified by Jensen with Regulus, which was apparently the star
of Merodach in Babylonia. This, however, brings us no nearer, for
Aššuritu would simply mean "the Assurite (goddess)."

The minor divinities.

Among the hundreds of names which the lists furnish, a few are worthy
of mention, either because of more than ordinary interest, or in
consequence of their furnishing the name of some deity, chief in its
locality, but identified elsewhere with one of the greater gods.

Aa.--This may be regarded either as the god Êa (though the name is
written differently), or as the sun-god assuming the name of his
consort; or (what is, perhaps, more probable) as a way of writing A'u
or Ya'u (the Hebrew Jah), without the ending of the nominative. This
last is also found under the form /Aa'u/, /ya'u/, /yau/, and /ya/.

Abil-addu.--This deity seems to have attained a certain popularity in
later times, especially among immigrants from the West. As "the son of
Hadad," he was the equivalent of the Syrian Ben-Hadad. A tablet in New
York shows that his name was weakened in form to /Ablada/.

Aku, the moon-god among the heavenly bodies. It is this name which is
regarded as occurring in the name of the Babylonian king Eri-Aku,
"servant of the moon-god," the biblical Arioch (Gen. xiv.).

Amma-an-ki, Êa or Aa as lord of heaven and earth.

Amna.--A name only found in a syllabary, and assigned to the sun-god,
from which it would seem that it is a form of the Egyptian Ammon.

Anunitum, the goddess of one of the two Sippars, called Sippar of
Anunitum, who was worshipped in the temple Ê-ulmaš within the city of
Agadé (Akkad). Sayce identifies, on this account, these two places as
being the same. In a list of stars, Anunitum is coupled with
Šinunutum, which are explained as (the stars of) the Tigris and
Euphrates. These were probably names of Venus as the morning and
evening (or evening and morning) star.

Apsu.--The deep dissociated from the evil connection with Tiawath, and
regarded as "the house of deep wisdom," i.e. the home of the god Êa or
Aa.

Aruru.--One of the deities of Sippar and Aruru (in the time of the
dynasty of Hammurabi called Ya'ruru), of which she was the chief
goddess. Aruru was one of the names of the "lady of the gods," and
aided Merodach to make the seed of mankind.

Bêl.--As this name means "lord," it could be applied, like the
Phœnician Baal, to the chief god of any city, as Bêl of Niffur, Bêl of
Hursag-kalama, Bêl of Aratta, Bêl of Babylon, etc. This often
indicates also the star which represented the chief god of a place.

Bêltu.--In the same way Bêltu, meaning "lady," meant also the chief
goddess of any place, as "Aruru, lady of the gods of Sippar of Aruru,"
"Nin-mah, lady of the gods of Ê-mah," a celebrated temple within
Babylon, recently excavated by the Germans, "Nin-hur-saga, lady of the
gods of Kêš," etc.

Bunene.--A god associated with Šamaš and Ištar at Sippar and
elsewhere. He "gave" and "renewed" to his worshippers.

Dagan.--This deity, whose worship extends back to an exceedingly early
date, is generally identified with the Phœnician Dagon. Hammurabi
seems to speak of the Euphrates as being "the boundary of Dagan," whom
he calls his creator. In later inscriptions the form Daguna, which
approaches nearer to the West Semitic form, is found in a few personal
names. The Phœnician statues of this deity showed him with the lower
part of his body in the form of a fish (see 1 Sam. v. 4). Whether the
deities clothed in a fish's skin in the Nimroud gallery be Dagon or
not is uncertain--they may be intended for Êa or Aa, the Oannes of
Berosus, who was represented in this way. Probably the two deities
were regarded as identical.

Damu.--a goddess regarded as equivalent to Gula by the Babylonians and
Assyrians. She was goddess of healing, and made one's dreams happy.

Dumu-zi-abzu, "Tammuz of the Abyss."--This was one of the six sons of
Êa or Aa, according to the lists. His worship is exceedingly ancient,
and goes back to the time of E-anna-tum of Lagaš (about 4000 B.C.).
What connection, if any, he may have with Tammuz, the spouse of Ištar,
is unknown. Jastrow apparently regards him as a distinct deity, and
translates his name "the child of the life of the water-deep."

Elali.--A deity identified with the Hebrew Helal, the new moon. Only
found in names of the time of the Hammurabi dynasty, in one of which
he appears as "a creator."

En-nugi is described as "lord of streams and canals," and "lord of the
earth, lord of no-return." This last description, which gives the
meaning of his name, suggests that he was one of the gods of the realm
of Ereš-ki-gal, though he may have borne that name simply as god of
streams, which always flow down, never the reverse.

Gibil.--One of the names of the god of fire, sometimes transcribed
Girru by Assyriologists, the meaning apparently being "the fire-
bearer" or "light-bearer." Girru is another name of this deity, and
translates an ideographic group, rendered by Delitzsch "great" or
"highest decider," suggesting the custom of trial by ordeal. He was
identified with Nirig, in Semitic Ênu-rêštu.

Gušqi-banda or Kuski-banda, one of the names of Êa, probably as god of
gold-workers.

Išum, "the glorious sacrificer," seemingly a name of the fire-god as a
means whereby burnt offerings were made. Nûr-Išum, "light of Išum," is
found as a man's name.

Kâawanu, the planet Saturn.

Lagamal.--A god identified with the Elamite Lagamar, whose name is
regarded as existing in Chedorlaomer (cf. Gen. xiv. 2). He was the
chief god of Mair, "the ship-city."

Lugal-Amarada or Lugal-Marad.--This name means "king of Marad," a city
as yet unidentified. The king of this place seems to have been
Nerigal, of whom, therefore, Lugal-Marad is another name.

Lugal-banda.--This name means "the powerful king," or something
similar, and the god bearing it is supposed to be the same as Nerigal.
His consort, however, was named Nin-sun (or Nin-gul).

Lugal-Du-azaga, "the king of the glorious seat."--The founder of
Êridu, "the good city within the Abyss," probably the paradise (or a
paradise) of the world to come. As it was the aim of every good
Babylonian to dwell hereafter with the god whom he had worshipped upon
earth, it may be conjectured that this was the paradise in the domain
of Êa or Aa.

Mama, Mami.--Names of "the lady of the gods," and creatress of the
seed of mankind, Aruru. Probably so called as the "mother" of all
things. Another name of this goddess is Ama, "mother."

Mammitum, Mamitum, goddess of fate.

Mur, one of the names of Addu or Rammanu (Hadad or Rimmon).

Nanâ or Nanaa was the consort of Nebo at Borsippa, but appears as a
form of Ištar, worshipped, with Anu her father, at Erech.

Nin-aha-kuku, a name of Êa or Aa and of his daughter as deity of the
rivers, and therefore of gardens and plantations, which were watered
by means of the small canals leading therefrom. As daughter of Êa,
this deity was also "lady of the incantation."

Nin-azu, the consort of Ereš-ki-gal, probably as "lord physician." He
is probably to be identified with Nerigal.

Nin-igi-nagar-si, a name somewhat more doubtful as to its reading than
the others, designates Êa or Aa as "the god of the carpenter." He
seems to have borne this as "the great constructor of heaven" or "of
Anu."

Nin-mah, chief goddess of the temple Ê-mah in Babylon. Probably to be
identified with Aruru, and therefore with Zer-panîtum.

Nin-šah, a deity whose name is conjectured to mean "lord of the wild
boar." He seems to have been a god of war, and was identified with
Nirig or Ênu-rêštu and Pap-sukal.

Nin-sirsir, Êa as the god of sailors.

Nin-sun, as pointed out by Jastrow, was probably the same as Ištar or
Nanâ of Erech, where she had a shrine, with them, in Ê-anna, "the
house of Anu." He renders her name "the annihilating lady,"[*]
"appropriate for the consort of a sun-god," for such he regards Lugal-
banda her spouse. King Sin-gasid of Erech (about 3000 B.C.) refers to
her as his mother.

[*] This is due to the second element of the name having, with another
    pronunciation, the meaning of "to destroy."

Nun-urra.--Êa, as the god of potters.

Pap-sukal.--A name of Nin-šah as the "divine messenger," who is also
described as god "of decisions." Nin-šah would seem to have been one
of the names of Pap-sukal rather than the reverse.

Qarradu, "strong," "mighty," "brave."--This word, which was formerly
translated "warrior," is applied to several deities, among them being
Bêl, Nergal, Nirig (Ênu-rêštu), and Šamaš, the sun-god.

Ragimu and Ramimu, names of Rimmon or Hadad as "the thunderer." The
second comes from the same root as Rammanu (Rimmon).

Šuqamunu.--A deity regarded as "lord of watercourses," probably the
artificial channels dug for the irrigation of fields.

Ura-gala, a name of Nerigal.

Uraš, a name of Nirig, under which he was worshipped at Dailem, near
Babylon.

Zagaga, dialectic Zamama.--This deity, who was a god of war, was
identified with Nirig. One of this titles was /bêl parakki/, "lord of
the royal chamber," or "throne-room."

Zaraqu or Zariqu.--As the root of this name means "to sprinkle," he
was probably also a god of irrigation, and may have presided over
ceremonial purification. He is mentioned in names as the "giver of
seed" and "giver of a name" (i.e. offspring).

These are only a small proportion of the names found in the
inscriptions, but short as the list necessarily is, the nature, if not
the full composition, of the Babylonian pantheon will easily be
estimated therefrom.

It will be seen that besides the identifications of the deities of all
the local pantheons with each other, each divinity had almost as many
names as attributes and titles, hence their exceeding multiplicity. In
such an extensive pantheon, many of the gods composing it necessarily
overlap, and identification of each other, to which the faith, in its
primitive form, was a stranger, were inevitable. The tendency to
monotheism which this caused will be referred to later on.


                  The gods and the heavenly bodies.

It has already been pointed out that, from the evidence of the
Babylonian syllabary, the deities of the Babylonians were not astral
in their origin, the only gods certainly originating in heavenly
bodies being the sun and the moon. This leads to the supposition that
the Babylonians, bearing these two deities in mind, may have asked
themselves why, if these two were represented by heavenly bodies, the
others should not be so represented also. Be this as it may, the other
deities of the pantheon were so represented, and the full planetary
scheme, as given by a bilingual list in the British Museum, was as
follows:

Aku             Sin             the moon        Sin
Bišebi          Šamaš           the sun         Šamaš
Dapinu          Umun-sig-êa     Jupiter         Merodach
Zib[*]          Dele-bat        Venus           Ištar
Lu-lim          Lu-bat-sag-uš   Saturn          Nirig (acc. to Jensen)
Bibbu           Lubat-gud       Mercury         Nebo
Simutu          Muštabarru      Mars            Nergal
                  mûtanu

All the above names of planets have the prefix of divinity, but in
other inscriptions the determinative prefix is that for "star,"
/kakkabu/.

[*] This is apparently a Sumerian dialectic form, the original word
having seemingly been Zig.


                            Moon and Sun.

Unfortunately, all the above identifications of the planets with the
deities in the fourth column are not certain, namely, those
corresponding with Saturn, Mercury, and Mars. With regard to the
others, however, there is no doubt whatever. The reason why the moon
is placed before the sun is that the sun, as already explained, was
regarded as his son. It was noteworthy also that the moon was
accredited with two other offspring, namely, Mâšu and Mâštu--son and
daughter respectively. As /mâšu/ means "twin," these names must
symbolise the two halves, or, as we say, "quarters" of the moon, who
were thus regarded, in Babylonian mythology, as his "twin children."


                         Jupiter and Saturn.

Concerning Jupiter, who is in the above called Dapinu (Semitic), and
Umun-sig-êa (Sumerian), it has already been noted that he was called
Nibiru--according to Jensen, Merodach as he who went about among the
stars "pasturing" them like sheep, as stated in the Babylonian story
of the Creation (or Bel and the Dragon). This is explained by him as
being due to the comparatively rapid and extensive path of Jupiter on
the ecliptic, and it would seem probable that the names of Saturn,
/Kâawanu/ and /Sag-uš/ (the former, which is Semitic Babylonian,
meaning "steadfast," or something similar, and the latter, in
Sumerian, "head-firm" or "steadfast"--"phlegmatic"), to all appearance
indicate in like manner the deliberation of his movements compared
with those of the planet dedicated to the king of the gods.


                     Venus at sunrise and sunset.

A fragment of a tablet published in 1870 gives some interesting
particulars concerning the planet Venus, probably explaining some as
yet unknown mythological story concerning her. According to this, she
was a female at sunset, and a male at sunrise; Ištar of Agadé (Akad or
Akkad) at sunrise, and Ištar of Erech at sunset: Ištar of the stars at
sunrise, and the lady of the gods at sunset.


                      And in the various months.

Ištar was identified with Nin-si-anna in the first month of the year
(Nisan = March-April), with the star of the bow in Ab (August-
September), etc. In Sebat (January-February) she was the star of the
water-channel, Ikû, which was Merodach's star in Sivan (May-June), and
in Marcheswan her star was Rabbu, which also belonged to Merodach in
the same month. It will thus be seen, that Babylonian astronomy is far
from being as clear as would be desired, but doubtless many
difficulties will disappear when further inscriptions are available.


                   Stars identified with Merodach.

The same fragment gives the celestial names of Merodach for every
month of the year, from which it would appear, that the astrologers
called him Umun-sig-êa in Nisan (March-April), Dapinu in Tammuz (June-
July), Nibiru in Tisri (September-October), Šarru (the star Regulus),
in Tebet (December-January), etc. The first three are names by which
the planet Jupiter was known.

As for the planets and stars, so also for the constellations, which
are identified with many gods and divine beings, and probably contain
references, in their names and descriptions, to many legends. In the
sixth tablet of the Creation-series, it is related of Merodach that,
after creating the heavens and the stations for Anu, Bêl, and Ae,

  "He built firmly the stations of the great gods--
  Stars their likeness--he set up the /Lumali/,
  He designated the year, he outlined the (heavenly) forms.
  He set for the twelve months three stars each,
  From the day when the year begins, . . . for signs."

As pointed out by Mr. Robert Brown, jr., who has made a study of these
things, the "three stars" for each month occur on one of the remains
of planispheres in the British Museum, and are completed by a tablet
which gives them in list-form, in one case with explanations. Until
these are properly identified, however, it will be impossible to
estimate their real value. The signs of the Zodiac, which are given by
another tablet, are of greater interest, as they are the originals of
those which are in use at the present time:--

Month                   Sign                                Equivalent

Nisan (Mar.-Apr.)       The Labourer                        The Ram
Iyyar (Apr.-May)        /Mulmula/ and the Bull of heaven    The Bull
Sivan (May-June)        /Sib-zi-anna/ and the great Twins   The Twins
Tammuz (June-July)      /Allul/ or /Nagar/                  The Crab
Ab (July.-Aug.)         The Lion (or dog)                   The Lion
Elul (Aug.-Sep.)        The Ear of corn(?)                  The ear of Corn (Virgo)
Tisri (Sep.-Oct.)       The Scales                          The Scales
Marcheswan (Oct.-Nov.)  The Scorpion                        The Scorpion
Chisleu (Nov.-Dec.)     /Pa-bil-sag/                        The Archer
Tebet (Dec.-Jan.)       /Sahar-maš/, the Fish-kid           The Goat
Sebat (Jan.-Feb.)       /Gula/                              The Water-bearer
Adar (Feb.-Mar.)        The Water Channel and the Tails     The Fishes


                   Parallels in Babylonian legends.

The "bull of heaven" probably refers to some legend such as that of
the story of Gilgameš in his conflict with the goddess Ištar when the
divine bull was killed; /Sib-zi-anna/, "the faithful shepherd of
heaven," suggests that this constellation may refer to Tammuz, the
divine shepherd; whilst "the scorpion" reminds us of the scorpion-men
who guarded the gate of the sun (Šamaš), when Gilgameš was journeying
to gain information concerning his friend Enki-du, who had departed to
the place of the dead. Sir Henry Rawlinson many years ago pointed out
that the story of the Flood occupied the eleventh tablet of the
Gilgameš series, corresponding with the eleventh sign of the Zodiac,
Aquarius, or the Water-bearer.


                          Other star-names.

Other names of stars or constellations include "the weapon of
Merodach's hand," probably that with which he slew the dragon of
Chaos; "the Horse," which is described as "the god Zû," Rimmon's
storm-bird--Pegasus; "the Serpent," explained as Ereš-ki-gal, the
queen of Hades, who would therefore seem to have been conceived in
that form; "the Scorpion," which is given as /Išhara tântim/, "Išhara
of the sea," a description difficult to explain, unless it refer to
her as the goddess of the Phœnician coast. Many other identifications,
exceedingly interesting, await solution.


          How the gods were represented. On cylinder-seals.

Many representations of the gods occur, both on bas-reliefs, boundary-
stones, and cylindrical and ordinary seals. Unfortunately, their
identification generally presents more or less difficulty, on account
of the absence of indications of their identity. On a small cylinder-
seal in the possession of the Rev. Dr. W. Hayes Ward, Merodach is
shown striding along the serpentine body of Tiawath, who turns her
head to attack him, whilst the god threatens her with a pointed weapon
which he carries. Another, published by the same scholar, shows a
deity, whom he regards as being Merodach, driven in a chariot drawn by
a winged lion, upon whose shoulders stands a naked goddess, holding
thunderbolts in each hand, whom he describes as Zer-panîtum. Another
cylinder-seal shows the corn-deity, probably Nisaba, seated in
flounced robe and horned hat, with corn-stalks springing out from his
shoulders, and holding a twofold ear of corn in his hand, whilst an
attendant introduces, and another with a threefold ear of corn
follows, a man carrying a plough, apparently as an offering. On
another, a beautiful specimen from Assyria, Ištar is shown standing on
an Assyrian lion, which turns his head as if to caress her feet. As
goddess of war, she is armed with bow and arrows, and her star is
represented upon the crown of her tiara.


                       On boundary-stones, etc.

On the boundary-stones of Babylonia and the royal monoliths of Assyria
the emblems of the gods are nearly always seen. Most prominent are
three horned tiaras, emblematic, probably, of Merodach, Anu, and Bêl
(the older). A column ending in a ram's head is used for Êa or Ae, a
crescent for Sin or Nannar, the moon-god; a disc with rays for Šamaš,
the sun-god; a thunderbolt for Rimmon or Hadad, the god of thunder,
lightning, wind, and storms; a lamp for Nusku, etc. A bird, perhaps a
hawk, stood for Utu-gišgallu, a deity whose name has been translated
"the southern sun," and is explained in the bilingual inscriptions as
Šamaš, the sun-god, and Nirig, one of the gods of war. The emblem of
Gal-alim, who is identified with the older Bêl, is a snarling dragon's
head forming the termination of a pole, and that of Dun-ašaga is a
bird's head similarly posed. On a boundary-stone of the time of
Nebuchadnezzar I., about 1120 B.C., one of the signs of the gods shows
a horse's head in a kind of shrine, probably the emblem of Rimmon's
storm-bird, Zû, the Babylonian Pegasus.


                        Other divine figures.

One of the finest of all the representations of divinities is that of
the "Sun-god-stone," found by Mr. Hormuzd Rassam at Abu-habbah (the
ancient Sippar), which was one of the chief seats of his worship. It
represents him, seated in his shrine, holding in his hand a staff and
a ring, his usual emblems, typifying his position as judge of the
world and his endless course. The position of Merodach as sun-god is
confirmed by the small lapis-lazuli relief found by the German
expedition at the mound known as Amran ibn 'Ali, as he also carries a
staff and a ring, and his robe is covered with ornamental circles,
showing, in all probability, his solar nature. In the same place
another small relief representing Rimmon or Hadad was found. His robe
has discs emblematical of the five planets, and he holds in each hand
a thunderbolt, one of which he is about to launch forth. Merodach is
accompanied by a large two-horned dragon, whilst Hadad has a small
winged dragon, typifying the swiftness of his course, and another
animal, both of which he holds with cords.



                              CHAPTER V

                 THE DEMONS: EXORCISMS AND CEREMONIES

Good and evil spirits, gods and demons, were fully believed in by the
Babylonians and Assyrians, and many texts referring to them exist.
Naturally it is not in some cases easy to distinguish well between the
special functions of these supernatural appearances which they
supposed to exist, but their nature is, in most cases, easily
ascertained from the inscriptions.

To all appearance, the Babylonians imagined that spirits resided
everywhere, and lay in wait to attack mankind, and to each class,
apparently, a special province in bringing misfortune, or tormenting,
or causing pain and sickness, was assigned. All the spirits, however,
were not evil, even those whose names would suggest that their
character was such--there were good "liers in wait," for instance, as
well as evil ones, whose attitude towards mankind was beneficent.

The /utukku/. This was a spirit which was supposed to do the will of
Anu, the god of the heavens. There was the /utukku/ of the plain, the
mountains, the sea, and the grave.

The /âlû/. Regarded as the demon of the storm, and possibly, in its
origin, the same as the divine bull sent by Ištar to attack Gilgameš,
and killed by Enki-du. It spread itself over a man, overpowering him
upon his bed, and attacking his breast.

The /êdimmu/. This is generally, but wrongly, read /êkimmu/, and
translated "the seizer," from /êkemu/, "to seize." In reality,
however, it was an ordinary spirit, and the word is used for the
wraiths of the departed. The "evil /êdimmu/" was apparently regarded
as attacking the middle part of a man.

The /gallu/. As this word is borrowed from the Sumerian /galla/, which
has a dialectic form, /mulla/, it is not improbable that it may be
connected with the word /mula/, meaning "star," and suggesting
something which is visible by the light it gives--possibly a will-o'-
the-wisp,--though others are inclined to regard the word as being
connected with /gala/, "great." In any case, its meaning seems to have
become very similar to "evil spirit" or "devil" in general, and is an
epithet applied by the Assyrian king Aššur-bani-âpli to Te-umman, the
Elamite king against whom he fought.

The /îlu limnu/, "evil god," was probably originally one of the
deities of Tiawath's brood, upon whom Merodach's redemption had had no
effect.

The /rabisu/ is regarded as a spirit which lay in wait to pounce upon
his prey.

The /labartu/, in Sumerian /dimme/, was a female demon. There were
seven evil spirits of this kind, who were apparently regarded as being
daughters of Anu, the god of the heavens.

The /labasu/, in Sumerian /dimmea/, was apparently a spirit which
overthrew, that being the meaning of the root from which the word
comes.

The /âhhazu/, in Sumerian /dimme-kur/, was apparently so called as
"the seizer," that being the meaning indicated by the root.

The /lilu/, in Sumerian /lila/, is generally regarded as "the night-
monster," the word being referred to the Semitic root /lîl/ or /layl/,
whence the Hebrew /layil/, Arabic /layl/, "night." Its origin,
however, is Sumerian, from /lila/, regarded as meaning "mist." To the
word /lilu/ the ancient Babylonians formed a feminine, /lilîthu/,
which entered the Hebrew language under the form of /lilith/, which
was, according to the rabbins, a beautiful woman, who lay in wait for
children by night. The /lilu/ had a companion who is called his
handmaid or servant.

The /namtaru/ was apparently the spirit of fate, and therefore of
greater importance than those already mentioned. This being was
regarded as the beloved son of Bêl, and offspring of /Ereš-ki-gal/ or
Persephone, and he had a spouse named /Huš-bi-šaga/. Apparently he
executed the instructions given him concerning the fate of men, and
could also have power over certain of the gods.

The /šêdu/ were apparently deities in the form of bulls. They were
destructive, of enormous power, and unsparing. In a good sense the
/šêdu/ was a protecting deity, guarding against hostile attacks. Erech
and the temple Ê-kura were protected by spirits such as these, and to
one of them Išum, "the glorious sacrificer," was likened.

The /lamassu/, from the Sumerian /lama/, was similar in character to
the /šêdu/, but is thought to have been of the nature of a colossus--a
winged man-headed bull or lion. It is these creatures which the kings
placed at the sides of the doors of their palaces, to protect the
king's footsteps. In early Babylonian times a god named Lama was one
of the most popular deities of the Babylonian pantheon.


                       A specimen incantation.

Numerous inscriptions, which may be regarded as dating, in their
origin, from about the middle of the third millennium before Christ,
speak of these supernatural beings, and also of others similar. One of
the most perfect of these inscriptions is a large bilingual tablet of
which a duplicate written during the period of the dynasty of
Hammurabi (before 2000 B.C.) exists, and which was afterwards provided
with a Semitic Babylonian translation. This inscription refers to the
evil god, the evil /utukku/, the /utukku/ of the plain, of the
mountain, of the sea, and of the grave; the evil /šêdu/, the glorious
/âlû/, or divine bull, and the evil unsparing wind. There was also
that which takes the form of a man, the evil face, the evil eye, the
evil mouth, the evil tongue, the evil lip, the evil breath; also the
afflicting /asakku/ (regarded as the demon of fever), the /asakku/
which does not leave a man: the afflicting /namtaru/ (fate), the
severe /namtaru/, the /namtaru/ which does not quit a man. After this
are mentioned various diseases, bodily pains, annoyances, such as "the
old shoe, the broken shoe-lace, the food which afflicts the body of a
man, the food which turns in eating, the water which chokes in
drinking," etc. Other things to be exorcised included the spirit of
death, people who had died of hunger, thirst, or in other ways; the
handmaid of the /lilu/ who had no husband, the prince of the /lilu/
who had no wife, whether his name had been recorded or unrecorded.

The method of exorcising the demons causing all these things is
curious. White and black yarn was spun, and fastened to the side and
canopy of the afflicted person's bed--the white to the side and the
top or canopy, the black to the left hand--and then, apparently, the
following words were said:--

"Evil /utukku/, evil /âlû/, evil /êdimmu/, evil /gallu/, evil god,
evil /rabisu/, /labartu/, /labasu/, /âhhazu/, /lilu/, /lilithu/,
handmaid of /lilu/, sorcery, enchantment, magic, disaster, machination
which is not good--may they not set their head to his head, their hand
to his hand, their foot to his foot--may they not draw near. Spirit of
heaven, mayest thou exorcise, spirit of earth, mayest thou exorcise."

But this was only the beginning of the real ceremony. The god Asari-
alim-nunna (Merodach), "eldest son of Êridu," was asked to wash him in
pure and bright water twice seven times, and then would the evil lier-
in-wait depart, and stand aside, and a propitious /šêdu/ and a
propitious /labartu/ reside in his body. The gates right and left
having been thus, so to say, shut close, the evil gods, demons, and
spirits would be unable to approach him, wherever he might be. "Spirit
of heaven, exorcise, spirit of earth, exorcise." Then, after an
invocation of Êrêš-ki-gal and Išum, the final paragraph was
pronounced:--

  "The afflicted man, by an offering of grace
  In health like shining bronze shall be made bright.
  As for that man,
  Šamaš shall give him life.
  Merodach, first-born son of the Abyss,
  It is thine to purify and glorify.
  Spirit of heaven, mayest thou exorcise, spirit of
    earth, mayest thou exorcise."


                        Rites and ceremonies.

As may be expected, the Babylonians and Assyrians had numerous rites
and ceremonies, the due carrying out of which was necessary for the
attainment of the grace demanded, or for the efficacy of the thanks
tendered for favours received.

Perhaps the oldest ceremony recorded is that which Ut-napištim, the
Chaldæan Noah, made on the /zikkurat/ or peak of the mountain after
the coming forth from the ship which had saved him and his from the
Flood. The Patriarch's description of this ceremony is short:--

  "I sent forth to the four winds, I poured out a libation
  I made an offering on the peak of the mountain:
  Seven and seven I set incense-vases there,
  Into their depths I poured cane, cedar, and scented wood(?).
  The gods smelled a savour,
  The gods smelled a sweet savour,
  The gods gathered like flies over the sacrificer."

Following in the footsteps of their great progenitor, the Babylonians
and Assyrians became a most pious race, constantly rendering to their
gods the glory for everything which they succeeded in bringing to a
successful issue. Prayer, supplication, and self-abasement before
their gods seem to have been with them a duty and a pleasure:--

  "The time for the worship of the gods was my heart's delight,
  The time of the offering to Ištar was profit and riches,"

sings Ludlul the sage, and all the people of his land were one with
him in that opinion.

It is noteworthy that the offering of the Chaldæan Noah consisted of
vegetable produce only, and there are many inscriptions referring to
similar bloodless sacrifices, and detailing the ritual used in
connection therewith. Sacrifices of animals, however, seem to have
been constantly made--in any case, offerings of cattle and fowl, in
list-form, are fairly numerous. Many a cylinder-seal has a
representation of the owner bringing a young animal--a kid or a lamb--
as an offering to the deity whom he worshipped, and in the
inscriptions the sacrifice of animals is frequently referred to. One
of the bilingual texts refers to the offering of a kid or some other
young animal, apparently on behalf of a sick man. The text of this,
where complete, runs as follows:--

  "The fatling which is the 'head-raiser' of mankind--
  He has given the fatling for his life.
  He has given the head of the fatling for his head,
  He has given the neck of the fatling for his neck,
  He has given the breast of the fatling for his breast."

Whether human sacrifices were common or not is a doubtful point. Many
cylinder-seals exist in which the slaying of a man is depicted, and
the French Assyriologist Menant was of opinion that they represented a
human offering to the gods. Hayes Ward, however, is inclined to doubt
this explanation, and more evidence would seem, therefore, to be
needed. He is inclined to think that, in the majority of cases, the
designs referred to show merely the victims of divine anger or
vengeance, punished by the deity for some misdeed or sin, either
knowingly or unknowingly committed.

In the Assyrian galleries of the British Museum, Aššur-nasir-âpli,
king of Assyria, is several times shown engaged in religious
ceremonies--either worshipping before the sacred tree, or about to
pour out, apparently, a libation to the gods before departing upon
some expedition, and priests bringing offerings, either animal or
vegetable, are also represented. Aššur-banî-âpli, who is identified
with "the great and noble Asnapper," is shown, in bas-reliefs of the
Assyrian Saloon, pouring out a thank-offering over the lions which he
has killed, after his return from the hunt.



                              CHAPTER VI

                   PROBLEMS WHICH THE STUDY OFFERS


                             Monotheism.

As the matter of Babylonian monotheism has been publicly touched upon
by Fried. Delitzsch in his "Babel und Bibel" lectures, a few words
upon that important point will be regarded in all probability as
appropriate. It has already been indicated that the giving of the
names of "the gods his fathers" to Merodach practically identified
them with him, thus leading to a tendency to monotheism. That tendency
is, perhaps, hinted at in a letter of Aššur-banî-âpli to the
Babylonians, in which he frequently mentions the Deity, but in doing
so, uses either the word /îlu/, "God," Merodach, the god of Babylon,
or Bêl, which may be regarded as one of his names. The most important
document for this monotheistic tendency, however (confirming as it
does the tablet of the fifty-one names), is that in which at least
thirteen of the Babylonian deities are identified with Merodach, and
that in such a way as to make them merely forms in which he manifested
himself to men. The text of this inscription is as follows:--

  ". . .            is Merodach of planting.
  Lugal-aki-. . .   is Merodach of the water-course.
  Nirig             is Merodach of strength.
  Nergal            is Merodach of war.
  Zagaga            is Merodach of battle.
  Bêl               is Merodach of lordship and domination.
  Nebo              is Merodach of trading(?).
  Sin               is Merodach the illuminator of the night.
  Šamaš             is Merodach of righteous things.
  Addu              is Merodach of rain.
  Tišpak            is Merodach of frost(?).
  Sig               is Merodach of green things(?).
  Šuqamunu          is Merodach of the irrigation-channel."

Here the text breaks off, but must have contained several more similar
identifications, showing how at least the more thoughtful of the
Babylonians of old looked upon the host of gods whom they worshipped.
What may be the date of this document is uncertain, but as the
colophon seems to describe it as a copy of an older inscription, it
may go back as far as 2000 years B.C. This is the period at which the
name /Yaum-îlu/ "Jah is God," is found, together with numerous
references to /îlu/ as the name for the one great god, and is also,
roughly, the date of Abraham, who, it may be noted, was a Babylonian
of Ur of the Chaldees. It will probably not be thought too venturesome
to say that his monotheism was possibly the result of the religious
trend of thought in his time.


                               Dualism.

Damascius, in his valuable account of the belief of the Babylonians
concerning the Creation, states that, like the other barbarians, they
reject the doctrine of the one origin of the universe, and constitute
two, Tauthé (Tiawath) and Apason (Apsu). This twofold principle,
however, is only applicable to the system in that it makes of the sea
and the deep (for such are the meanings of the two words) two
personages--the female and the male personifications of primæval
matter, from which all creation sprang, and which gave birth to the
gods of heaven themselves. As far as the physical constituents of
these two principals are concerned, their tenets might be described as
having "materialistic monism" as their basis, but inasmuch as they
believed that each of these two principals had a mind, the description
"idealistic monism" cannot be applied to it--it is distinctly a
dualism.


                             And Monism.

Divested of its idealistic side, however, there would seem to be no
escape from regarding the Babylonian idea of the origin of things as
monistic.[*] This idea has its reflection, though not its
reproduction, in the first chapter of Genesis, in which, verses 2, 6,
and 7, water is represented as the first thing existing, though not
the first abode of life. This divergency from the Babylonian view was
inevitable with a monotheistic nation, such as the Jews were,
regarding as they did the Deity as the great source of everything
existing. What effect the moving of the Spirit of God upon the face of
the waters (v.2) was supposed by them to have had, is uncertain, but
it is to be noted that it was the land (vv. 11, 12) which first
brought forth, at the command of God.

[*] Monism. The doctrine which holds that in the universe there is
    only a single element or principle from which everything is
    developed, this single principle being either mind (/idealistic
    monism/) or matter (/materialistic monism/). (Annandale.)


                           The future life.

The belief in a future life is the natural outcome of a religious
belief such as the Babylonians, Assyrians, and many of the surrounding
nations possessed. As has been shown, a portion of their creed
consisted in hero-worship, which pre-supposes that the heroes in
question continued to exist, in a state of still greater power and
glory, after the conclusion of their life here upon earth.

"The god Bêl hates me--I cannot dwell in this land, and in the
territory of Bêl I cannot set my face. I shall descend then to the
Abyss; with Aa my lord shall I constantly dwell." It is with these
words that, by the counsel of the god Aa, Ut-napištim explained to
those who questioned him the reason why he was building the ship or
ark which was to save him and his from the Flood, and there is but
little doubt that the author of the story implied that he announced
thereby his approaching death, or his departure to dwell with his god
without passing the dread portals of the great leveller. This belief
in the life beyond the grave seems to have been that which was current
during the final centuries of the third millennium before Christ--when
a man died, it was said that his god took him to himself, and we may
therefore suppose, that there were as many heavens--places of
contentment and bliss--as there were gods, and that every good man was
regarded as going and dwelling evermore with the deity which he had
worshipped and served faithfully during his lifetime.

Gilgameš, the half-divine king of Erech, who reigned during the half-
mythical period, on losing his friend and counsellor, Enki-du, set out
to find him, and to bring him back, if possible, from the underworld
where he was supposed to dwell. His death, however, had not been like
that of an ordinary man; it was not Namtaru, the spirit of fate, who
had taken him, nor a misfortune such as befalls ordinary men, but
Nerigal's unsparing lier-in-wait--yet though Nerigal was the god of
war, Enki-du had not fallen on the battlefield of men, but had been
seized by the earth (apparently the underworld where the wicked are is
meant) in consequence, seemingly, of some trick or trap which had been
laid for him.

The gods were therefore prayed, in turn, to bring him back, but none
of them listened except Êa, who begged him of Nerigal, whereupon the
latter opened the entrance to the place where he was--the hole of the
earth--and brought forth "the spirit (/utukku/) of Enki-du like mist."
Immediately after this come the words, "Tell, my friend, tell, my
friend--the law of the land which thou sawest, tell," and the answer,
"I will not tell thee, friend, I will not tell thee--if I tell thee
the law of the land which I saw, . . . sit down, weep." Ultimately,
however, the person appealed to--apparently the disembodied Enki-du--
reveals something concerning the condition of the souls in the place
of his sojourn after death, as follows:--

  "Whom thou sawest [die] the death(?) [of][*] . . . [I see]--
  In the resting-place of . . . reposing, pure waters he drinketh.
  Whom in the battle thou sawest killed, I see--
  His father and his mother raise his head,
    And his wife upon [him leaneth?].
  Whose corpse thou hast seen thrown down in the plain, I see--
  His /edimmu/ in the earth reposeth not.
  Whose /edimmu/ thou sawest without a caretaker, I see--
  The leavings of the dish, the remains of the food,
    Which in the street is thrown, he eateth."

[*] (?)"The death of the righteous," or something similar?

It is naturally difficult to decide in a passage like this, the
difference existing between a man's /utukku/ and his /edimmu/, but the
probability is, that the former means his spiritual essence, whilst
the latter stands for the ghostly shadow of his body, resembling in
meaning the /ka/ of the Egyptians. To all appearance the abode
described above is not the place of the punishment of the wicked, but
the dwelling of those accounted good, who, if lucky in the manner of
their death, and the disposal of their bodies, enjoyed the highest
happiness in the habitation of the blest. The other place, however, is
otherwise described (it occurs in the account of Ištar's descent into
Hades, and in the seventh tablet of the Gilgameš series--the latter
differing somewhat):--

  "Upon the land of No-return, the region of . . .,
  [Set] Istar, daughter of Sin, her ear.
  The daughter of Sin set then her ear . . .
  Upon the house of gloom, the seat of Irkalla--[*]
  Upon the house whose entrance hath no exit,[†]
  Upon the path whose way hath no return,
  Upon the house whose enterers are deprived of light,
  Where dust is their nourishment, their food mud,
  Light they see not, in darkness they dwell,
  Clothed also, like a bird, in a dress of feathers.
  Upon the door and bolt the dust hath blown."

[*] One of the names of Nergal.

[†] Or "whose enterer goeth not forth."

Seven gates gave access to this place of gloom, and the porter, as he
let the visitor in, took from her (the goddess Ištar in the narrative)
at each an article of clothing, until, at the last, she entered quite
naked, apparently typifying the fact that a man can take nothing with
him when he dieth, and also, in this case, that he has not even his
good deeds wherewith to clothe himself, for had they outweighed his
evil ones, he would not have found himself in that dread abode.

On the arrival of Ištar in Hades, Erêš-ki-gal commanded Namtaru, the
god of fate, to smite Ištar with disease in all her members--eyes,
sides, feet, heart, and head. As things went wrong on the earth in
consequence of the absence of the goddess of love, the gods sent a
messenger to effect her release. When he reached the land of No-
return, the queen of the region threatened him with all kinds of
torments--the food of the gutters of the city were to be his food, the
oil-jars of the city (naptha?) his drink, the gloom of the castle his
resting-place, a stone slab his seat, and hunger and thirst were to
shatter his strength. These were evidently the punishments inflicted
there, but as the messenger threatened was a divine one, they were
probably not put into execution, and he obtained his demand, for Ištar
was set free, receiving back at each gate, in reverse order, the
clothing and ornaments which had been taken from her when she had
descended thither. It is uncertain whether Tammuz, for whom she had
gone down, was set free also, but as he is referred to, it is not
improbable that this was the case.



   WORKS BEARING UPON THE RELIGION OF THE BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS

Hibbert Lectures, 1887. The Religion of the Ancient Babylonians, by
Professor A. H. Sayce.

The Religious Ideas of the Babylonians, by the Author, 1895 (Journal
of the Victoria Institute, also separately).

The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, by Morris Jastrow, jun., 1898.
(German edition, vol. i. 1905, vol. ii. in progress.)

Babylonian Religion and Mythology, by L. W. King, M.A., 1899.

Gifford Lectures, 1902. Religions of Egypt and Babylonia, by Professor
A. H. Sayce.

The O.T. in the Light of the Records of Assyria and Babylonia, by the
Author, 1903. (The portions referring to Babylonian Mythology.)

The Hymns to Tammuz in the Manchester Museum, Owens College, by the
Author, 1904.



          ARTICLES UPON THE ASSYRIAN AND BABYLONIAN DEITIES,
                AND THE RELIGION OF THREE NATIONS, IN

      Dictionary of the Bible, edited by Dr. James Hastings, and
          Encyclopædia Biblica, edited by Professor Cheyne.

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